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A concise guide through the bewildering variety of modern programming languages, this book focuses on essential concepts to provide a firm foundation for comparative study.

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CONTENTS
Preface = ⅴ
1 Aspects of Programming Languages = 1
 1.1 Why programming languages? = 2
 1.2 Some history = 4
 1.3 Paradigms and the structure of this book = 6
  1.3.1 Programming paradigms = 8
  1.3.2 Programming models = 9
  1.3.3 Other language classifications = 10
 1.4 The structure of programs = 11
  1.4.1 Lexical structure = 12
  1.4.2 Syntactic structure = 14
  1.4.3 Context and semantics = 16
 1.5 Programming languages as communication media = 16
 1.6 Managing and reducing complexity = 18
  1.6.1 Problem decomposition = 18
  1.6.2 Abstraction = 19
  1.6.3 Contextual checking = 21
 1.7 Program processing = 23
  1.7.1 Interpretation versus compilation = 23
  1.7.2 Macro preprocessing = 26
  1.7.3 Debugging tools = 27
  1.7.4 Programming environments = 28
 Summary = 29
 Bibliographical notes = 29
 Exercises = 30
2 Imperative Languages = 32
 2.1 Principles = 33
 2.2 Data = 34
  2.2.1 Data declarations = 34
  2.2.2 Types and type constructors = 38
  2.2.3 Orthogonality of data types and declarations = 50
  2.2.4 Restricted types = 52
  2.2.5 Type equivalence = 52
  2.2.6 Coercions, contexts, casts and conversions = 54
 2.3 State = 55
  2.3.1 Assignments = 56
  2.3.2 Expressions = 58
  2.3.3 External state = 62
 2.4 Flow of control = 64
  2.4.1 Sequencing = 64
  2.4.2 Selection = 64
  2.4.3 Routine invocation = 67
  2.4.4 Repetition = 67
  2.4.5 Run-time error handling = 71
  2.4.6 Orthogonality of statements = 76
 2.5 Program composition = 77
  2.5.1 Blocks = 78
  2.5.2 Subprograms = 84
  2.5.3 Modules and packages = 92
  2.5.4 Generics = 100
  2.5.5 Programs = 102
  2.5.6 Orthogonality of program composition = 105
 2.6 Examples of imperative languages = 105
  2.6.1 Icon = 105
  2.6.2 PostScript = 107
 Summary = 109
 Bibliographical notes = 110
 Exercises = 110
3 Object-oriented Languages = 113
 3.1 Principles = 113
  3.1.1 The object-oriented design methodology = 113
  3.1.2 The principles of object-oriented languages = 115
 3.2 Classes = 116
 3.3 Inheritance = 118
 3.4 Inheritance and class hierarchies = 121
 3.5 Inheritance and types = 123
 3.6 Inheritance and polymorphism = 124
 3.7 Dynamic binding = 125
 3.8 Reference semantics = 128
 3.9 When to use inheritance? = 131
 3.10 Discussion = 132
 3.11 Example languages = 133
  3.11.1 C++ = 134
  3.11.2 Eiffel = 135
  3.11.3 Smalltalk-80 = 136
 Summary = 139
 Bibliographical notes = 140
 Exercises = 140
4 Functional Languages = 143
 4.1 Principles = 144
 4.2 Functions = 146
 4.3 Lists = 148
 4.4 Types and polymorphism = 150
 4.5 Higher-order functions = 151
 4.6 Currying = 153
 4.7 Lazy evaluation = 153
 4.8 Equations and pattern matching = 156
 4.9 Example programs = 158
 4.10 Example language = 161
  4.10.1 Lisp = 161
 Summary = 161
 Bibliographical notes = 162
 Exercises = 163
5 Logic Languages = 165
 5.1 Principles = 165
 5.2 Horn clauses = 166
 5.3 Executing Horn clauses = 168
 5.4 Logical variables = 170
 5.5 Relations = 172
 5.6 Data structures = 173
 5.7 Controlling the search order = 176
 5.8 Example programs = 178
 5.9 Example language = 183
  5.9.1 Prolog = 183
 Summary = 184
 Bibliographical notes = 185
 Exercises = 185
6 Parallel and Distributed Languages = 187
 6.1 Principles = 187
 6.2 Parallelism = 190
  6.2.1 Co-routines = 191
  6.2.2 Parallel statements = 191
  6.2.3 Processes = 193
 6.3 Corrmunication and synchronization = 194
  6.3.1 Shared variables = 194
  6.3.2 Message passing = 202
  6.3.3 In between message passing and shared variables = 211
 6.4 Languages based on other paradigms = 214
 6.5 Example languages = 215
  6.5.1 Mesa = 216
  6.5.2 Synchronizing Resources (SR) = 216
  6.5.3 Ada = 217
 Summary = 219
 Bibliographical notes = 220
 Exercises = 221
7 Other Paradigms = 223
 7.1 Additional general-purpose paradigms = 225
  7.1.1 Constraint programming = 225
  7.1.2 Access-oriented programming = 228
  7.1.3 Single-datastructure languages = 229
 7.2 Additional special-purpose paradigms = 232
  7.2.1 Dataflow programming = 232
  7.2.2 Little languages = 238
  7.2.3 Database languages = 240
  7.2.4 Real-time languages = 241
 Summary = 243
 Bibliographical notes = 244
 Exercises = 244
Appendix A : References to Languages = 246
Appendix B : Answers to Exercises = 249
References = 258
Index = 264