CONTENTS
1 Towards Artifrcial Intelligence = 1
1.1 What Is Artificial Intelligence? = 1
1.2 Machine Models of Mind = 2
1.3 The Mind as Machine = 8
1.4 Intelligent Machines = 14
1.5 Beyond Symbol Processors = 19
1.6 Conclusion = 21
1.7 Appendix: Programming in POP-11 = 21
1.7.1 Automated Tourist Guide = 21
1.7.2 Data Objects = 22
1.7.3 Commands = 23
1.7.4 Procedures = 25
1.7.5 Mishaps = 25
1.7.6 Variables = 26
1.7.7 Assignment = 26
1.7.8 User-Defined Procedures = 28
1.8 Exercises = 31
2 Perfomance without Knowledge = 33
2.1 A Conversation with a Computer = 33
2.2 Analyzing Eliza = 38
2.3 Inside Eliza = 40
2.3.1 Patterns = 41
2.3.2 Choices in Eliza = 43
2.4 What Eliza Lacks = 44
2.5 What Use Is Eliza? = 46
2.6 Conclusion = 47
2.7 Appendix: A Program to Hold a Conversation = 47
2.7.1 Pattern Matching = 48
2.7.2 Deciding What to Do = 49
2.7.3 A Simple Eliza-Like Tourist Guide = 51
2.7.4 A Complete Eliza Program = 53
2.8 Exercises = 55
3 Stored Knowledge = 59
3.1 The Importance of Stored Knowledge = 59
3.2 Specialized versus Commonsense Knowledge = 61
3.3 Styles of Knowledge Representation = 63
3.3.1 Perdicate Logic = 63
3.3.2 Semantic Networks = 65
3.3.3 Production Systems = 67
3.3.4 Frames and Scripts = 69
3.4 Two Models of AI = 73
3.5 Blocks-World Programs and Internal Representations = 74
3.5.1 Knowledge of the MSBLOCKS World = 79
3.5.2 Knowledge of Possible Actions = 82
3.6 Conclusion = 84
3.7 Appendix: Representing Knowledge = 85
3.7.1 Some Procedures to Access the Database = 86
3.7.2 A Revised Version of the answer Procedure = 90
3.7.3 Using Variables in Patterns = 93
3.7.4 Reviewing the answer Procedure = 95
3.8 Exercises = 97
4 Search = 99
4.1 The Idea of Search = 99
4.2 Computer Search = 100
4.2.1 Finding a Route on the Underground = 101
4.2.2 The Tree Structure of Search = 106
4.2.3 Solving a Jigsaw = 108
4.2.4 Search Strategies = 108
4.2.5 State Space = 111
4.2.6 Playing Games = 111
4.2.7 The Game of Quadripawn = 113
4.2.8 Quicker Searching = 117
4.3 The Limitations of Search = 118
4.4 Conclusion = 119
4.5 Appendix: Programming Route Finding = 119
4.5.1 Carrying Out the Search = 121
4.5.2 Tracing the Route = 126
4.6 Exercises = 127
5 Natural Language = 129
5.1 The Cognitive Complexity of Language = 129
5.2 Syntax = 132
5.2.1 Sentence Matching = 133
5.2.2 Pattern Matching = 134
5.2.3 Grammars = 135
5.3 Semantics = 151
5.3.1 The Meaning of Words = 152
5.3.2 The Meaning of Phrases = 153
5.3.3 Answering Questions = 158
5.4 Pragmatics = 161
5.4.1 Speech Acts = 161
5.4.2 Commonsense Knowledge = 162
5.5 Producing a Reply = 163
5.6 Conclusion = 164
5.7 Appendix: Answering Qusetions = 165
5.7.1 A Sentence Recognizer = 168
5.7.2 A Sentence Parser and Database Query Generator = 170
5.8 Exercises = 174
6 Reasoning = 177
6.1 Reasoning with Stored Knowledge = 177
6.2 Reasoning with Semantic Nets = 180
6.2.1 What Are Semantic Networks? A Little Light History = 181
6.2.2 A Description of Semantic Networks = 187
6.2.3 Some Interpretations of Nodes and Links = 191
6.3 Conclusion = 192
6.4 Appendix: Inferences with a Semantic Net = 193
6.4.1 The connects Link = 193
6.4.2 The isa Link = 194
6.5 Exercises = 197
7 Rule-Based Knowledge = 199
7.1 Looking into the Black Box = 199
7.2 Protocol Analysis: Fillng on the Black Box = 202
7.3 Production Systems: Simulating the Black Box = 206
7.3.1 The Working Memory = 206
7.3.2 The Rulebase = 206
7.3.3 The Production System Interpreter = 209
7.4 Production Systems and Artificial Intelligence = 210
7.4.1 Production Systems Are Flexible = 211
7.4.2 Production Systems Are Modular = 211
7.4.3 Production Systems Are Plausible = 213
7.5 Conclusion = 214
7.6 Appendix: Production Rules = 215
7.6.1 Using a Production System in the Automated Tourist Guide = 217
7.7 Exercises = 220
8 Models of Cognition = 223
8.1 Building Minds = 223
8.1.1 Qualities of the Human Mind = 224
8.1.2 Limitations of the Human Mind = 225
8.2 Computer Models of Mind = 226
8.2.1 Errors in Children's Subtraction = 227
8.2.2 Anderson's ACT = 231
8.2.3 Learning the Past Tense of English Verbs = 234
8.2.4 Connetionist Models = 243
8.3 Two Models of Cognition = 244
8.4 Conclusion = 245
8.5 Appendix: The Tourist Guide and Human Tourists = 245
8.6 Exercises = 249
9 Computer Vision = 251
9.1 Finding the Underground = 251
9.2 A Seeing Machine = 251
9.2.1 Digitized Images = 254
9.2.2 Internal Representation = 256
9.3 Method 1: Template Matching = 256
9.3.1 Dealing with Defferences in Viewing Angld and Size = 258
9.3.2 Dealing with Variations Due to Lighting = 261
9.4 Method 2: Matching Descriptions = 265
9.4.1 Regions and Edges = 266
9.4.2 Matching = 267
9.5 Describing Shape and Position = 273
9.6 Conclusion = 274
9.7 Appendix: Recognizing an Underground Sign = 274
9.7.1 A POP-11 Procedure to Find Regions = 280
9.8 Exercises = 281
10 AI and the Philosophy of Mind = 283
10.1 Mind and Body = 283
10.2 Consciousness and the Puzzle of Other Minds = 286
10.3 Syntax, Semantics, and Intentionality = 289
10.4 The Intentional Stance = 291
10.5 Searle's Chinese Room = 292
10.6 Responding to Searle = 296
10.7 Artefacts = 298
10.8 'Pure' and 'Impure' Functionalism = 300
10.9 AI as an Account of Mind = 302
11 Artificial Intelligence-What Next? = 305
11.1 Commercial Expert Systems = 305
11.2 The Fifth Generation Initiative = 306
11.3 The New Connectionists = 309
11.4 Into the Future = 310
11.4.1 The Optimistic View = 311
11.4.2 The Pessimistic View = 312
11.5 Computers and Thought = 316
Appendix A The POP-11 Reference Guide = 317
Appendix B The Automated Tourist Guide = 325
Glossary = 351
Suggested Readings = 379
References = 387
Index = 396
