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Offering an up-to-date account of systems theories and its applications, this book provides a different way of resolving problems and addressing challenges in a swift and practical way, without losing overview and grip on the details. From this perspective, it offers a different way of thinking in order to incorporate different perspectives and to consider multiple aspects of any given problem. Drawing examples from a wide range of disciplines, it also presents worked cases to illustrate the principles. The multidisciplinary perspective and the formal approach to modelling of systems and processes of ‘Applied Systems Theory’ makes it suitable for managers, engineers, students, researchers, academics and professionals from a wide range of disciplines; they can use this ‘toolbox’ for describing, analysing and designing biological, engineering and organisational systems as well as getting a better understanding of societal problems. This revised, updated and expanded second edition includes coverage of abductive reasoning, the relevance of systems theories for research methods and a new chapter about problem analysis and solving based on systems theories.

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Offering an up-to-date account of systems theories and its applications, this book provides a different way of resolving problems and addressing challenges in a swift and practical way, without losing overview and grip on the details. From this perspective, it offers a different way of thinking in order to incorporate different perspectives and to consider multiple aspects of any given problem. Drawing examples from a wide range of disciplines, it also presents worked cases to illustrate the principles. The multidisciplinary perspective and the formal approach to modelling of systems and processes of ‘Applied Systems Theory’ makes it suitable for managers, engineers, students, researchers, academics and professionals from a wide range of disciplines; they can use this ‘toolbox’ for describing, analysing and designing biological, engineering and organisational systems as well as getting a better understanding of societal problems. This revised, updated and expanded second edition includes coverage of abductive reasoning, the relevance of systems theories for research methods and a new chapter about problem analysis and solving based on systems theories.

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CONTENTS
Synopsis = vii
 Ⅰ Systems, Entities as Part of a Whole = vii
  Systems as Objects of Study = viii
  Behaviour of Systems = ix
 Ⅱ System Approaches = xi
  Blackbox Approach = xi
  Aggregation Strata = xii
 Ⅲ Processes = xiii
  Static and Dynamic Systems = xiv
  Processes : Change of State = xiv
  Function = xv
 Ⅳ Control of Processes = xv
  Directing = xvi
  Feedback = xvi
  Feedforward = xvii
  Completing Defciencies
 Ⅴ Steady-State Model = xviii
  Coding and Decoding = xix
  Quality Filters = xix
  Buffers and Overfow Valves = xxi
  Initiation and Evaluation = xxii
  Limitations of the Steady-State Model = xxii
 Ⅵ Autopoiesis = xxiii
  Structurally Closed and Self-Referential = xxiii
  Allopoietic Systems = xxiv
 Ⅶ Complex Adaptive Systems = xxiv
  Simple Rules = xxv
  Fitness Landscapes = xxv
 Ⅷ Breakthrough Model = xxv
 Ⅸ Model for the Dynamic Adaptation Capability = xxvii
Foreword to the Second Edition = xxxv
1 Introduction = 1
 1.1 Concise History of Systems Theories = 1
 1.2 Application of Systems Theories = 6
 1.3 Foundations of Applied Systems Theory = 7
 1.4 Hard Systems Approach vs. Soft Systems Approach = 9
 1.5 Who Might Beneft from Applied Systems Theory and How? = 10
 1.6 Outline of Book = 11
 References = 12
2 Basic Concepts of Systems Theories = 15
 2.1 Systems = 16
  Defning Systems = 17
  Elements = 19
  Relationships = 21
  Universe = 21
  Environment = 22
 2.2 Properties of Systems = 22
  Content = 23
  Structure = 24
  Attributes = 25
  Emergence = 25
  Wholeness and Independence = 27
 2.3 Subsystems = 27
 2.4 Aspectsystems = 29
 2.5 State of Systems = 32
 2.6 Behaviour of Systems = 34
 2.7 Systems Boundary = 36
 2.8 Summary = 37
 References = 39
3 System Approaches = 41
 3.1 Modelling and Abstraction = 42
  Classifcation = 45
  Aggregation = 47
  Generalisation = 50
 3.2 Blackbox Approach = 52
 3.3 Deductive, Inductive and Abductive Reasoning = 54
  Deductive Reasoning = 54
  Equifnality, Homeostasis and Deductive Reasoning = 55
  Inductive Reasoning = 58
  Abductive Reasoning = 61
 3.4 Types of Models = 63
  Isomorphism = 64
  Homomorphism = 64
  Analogies and Metaphors = 65
  Qualitative Models = 67
  Quantitative Models = 70
  Overview of Models = 73
 3.5 Systems Hierarchy of Boulding = 75
 3.6 Summary = 78
 References = 79
4 Generic Approaches to Problem Analysis and Solving = 83
 4.1 Types of Decision Making = 84
  Programmed Decisions = 84
  Non-Programmed Decisions = 85
  Decisions in Crises = 87
 4.2 Problem Analysis = 88
  Problem Defnition = 88
  Analysing Problems = 91
  Redefning Problem Defnition = 94
 4.3 Finding and Weighing Alternatives = 94
  Generating Alternatives and Principle Solutions = 95
  Weighing Alternatives = 98
  [Pugh''''s] Controlled Convergence Method = 99
 4.4 Decision Making = 100
  Multiple-criteria Decision Making = 100
  Decision Trees = 102
  Satisfcing = 104
  Case-Based Reasoning = 104
  Decision Making in Groups = 105
  Abilene Paradox = 106
 4.5 Implementation of Solutions = 106
  Detailing of Solution = 106
  Effectuation of Solution = 107
 4.6 Evaluation of Solutions = 108
 4.7 Overview of Process for Problem Solving and Decision Making = 109
 4.8 Some Further Notes = 110
 4.9 Summary = 113
 References = 114
5 Processes = 117
 5.1 Processes as Interaction = 117
 5.2 Types of Processes = 119
  Homeostatic Processes = 121
  Adaptive Processes = 122
  Depicting Processes = 123
 5.3 Primary and Secondary Processes = 124
  Primary Process = 125
  Secondary Processes = 126
 5.4 Process and Function = 127
 5.5 Systems of Resources = 130
 5.6 Behaviour and Processes = 131
 5.7 Processes and Blackbox Approach = 133
 5.8 Business Process Mapping = 135
  Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology = 136
  International DEFinition Method = 137
  ASME Mapping Standard = 139
  Unifed Modelling Language = 140
  Soft Systems Methodology = 141
 5.9 Summary = 142
 References = 143
6 Control of Processes = 145
 6.1 Generic Concept of Control = 146
 6.2 Control and Directing = 149
 6.3 Feedback as Control Mechanism = 152
 6.4 Feedforward as Control Mechanism = 157
 6.5 Completing Defciencies = 161
 6.6 Application of Control Mechanisms = 163
 6.7 Echelons of Control = 167
 6.8 Law of Requisite Variety = 168
 6.9 Summary = 170
  References = 171
7 Steady-State Model = 173
 7.1 Boundary Control = 173
  Steady State = 174
  Boundary Zones = 176
  Heterostasis = 178
 7.2 Input Boundary Zone = 179
  Coding = 180
  Quality Filter Input = 181
  Control Mechanism (Feedforward) = 181
  Input Buffer = 182
  Overfow (Valve) = 182
 7.3 Output Boundary Zone = 183
  Control Mechanisms (Feedback and Completing Defciencies) = 183
  Output Buffer = 185
  Overfow (Valve) = 185
  Decoding = 186
 7.4 Regulatory Boundary Zone = 186
  Initiating Process = 186
  Evaluation Process = 187
 7.5 Limitations of Steady-State Model = 189
 7.6 Summary = 191
 References = 192
8 Autopoietic Systems = 193
 8.1 Autopoiesis = 194
 8.2 Principles of Autopoiesis = 195
 8.3 Autopoiesis and Self-Organisation = 196
  Self-organised Criticality = 199
  Self-organisation versus Entropy = 200
  Autopoietic Aspects of Self-Organisation = 201
 8.4 Interaction with Environment = 201
 8.5 Perception and Cognition = 203
 8.6 Allopoietic Systems = 204
  Allopoietic Systems as Creation = 204
  Stakeholders and Boundary Critique = 206
 8.7 Social Systems as Autopoietic Systems = 207
 8.8 Summary = 208
 References = 209
9 Complex Adaptive Systems = 211
 9.1 Dimensions of Complexity = 211
 9.2 Attributes of Complex Adaptive Systems = 213
  Distributed Control = 213
  Connectivity = 214
  Co-Evolution = 215
 9.3 Fitness Landscapes = 217
  Wright''''s Adaptive Landscape = 217
  Random Fitness Landscapes = 219
  Rugged Fitness Landscapes = 221
  Co-Evolution and NK-model = 224
 9.4 Self-Organisation by Complex Adaptive Systems = 224
  Simple Rules and Complex Behaviour = 225
  Attractors = 225
  Dissipative Structures = 226
  Edge-of-Chaos = 227
 9.5 Recursive Behaviour = 227
 9.6 Connectivity in Human-infuenced Networks = 229
 9.7 Summary = 231
 References = 232
10 Organisations and Breakthrough = 235
 10.1 Adaptation by Organisations = 236
  Creation of Mutations = 236
  Organisations as Allopoietic Systems = 239
  Evolution by Organisations = 241
 10.2 Processes of Foresight = 245
  Strategy = 245
  Dynamic Strategies = 247
  Forecasting = 248
  Techniques for Foresight = 250
  Scenario Planning = 251
 10.3 Breakthrough Model = 255
  Strategy Formation = 255
  Confrontation and Tuning = 256
  Confguration and Resource Allocation = 257
  Operations = 258
  Verifcation of Master Plan = 259
  Evaluation of Strategy = 260
 10.4 Model for the Dynamic Adapation Capability = 260
  Learning Processes and Innovation Impact Points = 261
  Dynamic Adaptation Capability = 262
 10.5 Differences with Steady-State Model = 264
  Capability for Adaptation = 264
  Linking Steady State to Breakthrough = 265
 10.6 Summary = 265
 References = 266
11 Applications of System Theories = 269
 11.1 Systems Engineering = 270
 11.2 Biological Systems = 272
  Systems Biology = 273
  Biological Ecosystems = 275
 11.3 Organisations = 277
  Management Cybernetics = 278
  Analysis and Design of Organisations = 279
  Organisations as Allopoietic Systems = 281
  Evolutionary Approaches for Organisations = 282
 11.4 Other Systems Theories in Brief = 285
  System Dynamics = 285
  Soft Systems Methodology = 287
  The Viable System Model = 289
  MetaSystem Transition Theory = 290
  Critical Systems Thinking = 291
 11.5 Research Methods = 293
 11.6 Concluding Remarks = 295
 References = 296
Index = 301