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Take a theoretical approach to architecture with The Autopoiesis of Architecture, which presents the topic as a discipline with its own unique logic. Architecture's conception of itself is addressed as well as its development within wider contemporary society.

Author Patrik Schumacher offers innovative treatment that enriches architectural theory with a coordinated arsenal of concepts facilitating both detailed analysis and insightful comparisons with other domains, such as art, science and politics. He explores how the various modes of communication comprising architecture depend upon each other, combine, and form a unique subsystem of society that co-evolves with other important autopoietic subsystems like art, science, politics and the economy.

The first of two volumes that together present a comprehensive account of architecture's autopoiesis, this book elaborates the theory of architecture?s autopoeisis in 8 parts, 50 sections and 200 chapters. Each of the 50 sections poses a thesis drawing a central message from the insights articulated within the respective section. The 200 chapters are gathering and sorting the accumulated intelligence of the discipline according to the new conceptual framework adopted, in order to catalyze and elaborate the new formulations and insights that are then encapsulated in the theses. However, while the theoretical work in the text of the chapters relies on the rigorous build up of a new theoretical language, the theses are written in ordinary language ? with the theoretical concepts placed in brackets. The full list of the 50 theses affords a convenient summary printed as appendix at the end of the book.

The second volume completes the analysis of the discourse and further proposes a new agenda for contemporary architecture in response to the challenges and opportunities that confront architectural design within the context of current societal and technological developments.

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The first of two volumes that together present a comprehensive account of architecture's autopoiesis, The Autopoiesis of Architecture: A New Framework for Architecture introduces the theoretical framework and traces the historical process of architecture's differentiation within its societal environment: its elevation above the craft of building, its emancipation from religion and politics, as well as its separation from art and science. On this basis Schumacher insists on the necessity of maintaining disciplinary autonomy and argues for its distinct demarcation in relation to art and engineering. Architecture's theory dependency is emphasized and its internal separation into the avant-garde and the mainstream is explained. Styles are theorized as design research programmes that constitute architectural history as a progression of cycles of innovation that upgrade architecture to adapt to the ongoing evolution of society. This initial volume ends with the clarification of architecture's underlying societal function and raison d'être. The second volume completes the analysis of the discourse and further proposes a new agenda for contemporary architecture in response to the challenges and opportunities that confront architectural design within the context of current societal and technological developments.

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[v1]

Preface. 0 Introduction: Architecture as Autopoietic System. 0.1 Architecture as a System of Communications. 0.2 A Unified Theory of Architecture. 0.3 Functional vs Causal Explanations. 0.4 The Quest for Comprehensiveness. 0.5 The Premises Imported from Social Systems Theory. 0.6 Architecture''s Place within Society. 1 Architectural Theory. 1.1 The Unity of Architecture. 1.1.1 Architectural System-formation and Self-regulation. 1.2 The Evolution of Architecture. 1.2.1 Architectural Theory as Mechanism of Selection. 1.3 The Necessity of Theory. 1.3.1 The Function of Architectural Theory. 1.3.2 Types of Theories. 1.3.3 The Necessity to Reflect Architecture''s Societal raison d''etre. 1.3.4 Super-theories. 1.3.5 The Theory of Architectural Autopoiesis as Domain-specific Super-theory. 1.3.6 From Deconstruction to the Programme of Critical Theory. 2 The Historical Emergence of Architecture. 2.1 The Emergence of Architecture as Self-referential System. 2.1.1 Inside-descriptions vs Outside-descriptions. 2.1.2 Function Systems. 2.1.3 The Historical Crystallization of Architecture. 2.2 Foundation and Refoundation of Architecture. 2.2.1 Autonomization: The Origin of the Discipline in the Italian Renaissance. 2.2.2 The Refoundation of the Discipline as Modern Architecture. 2.2.3 The Exclusive Competency and Universal Scope of Modern Architecture. 2.2.4 The Liberation from Traditional Formal Constraints. 2.2.5 The Switch from Edifice to Space. 2.3 Avant-garde vs Mainstream. 2.3.1 A Prerequisite for Evolution. 2.3.2 The Autonomy of the Avant-garde. 2.3.3 Communications between Avant-garde and Mainstream. 2.3.4 The Reciprocal Dependency between Avant-garde and Mainstream. 2.3.5 The Time Structure of the Avant-garde Process: Cumulative vs Revolutionary Periods. 2.3.6 Concrete Exemplars vs Abstract Principles. 2.3.7 Revolution and Philosophy. 2.3.8 Latent Utopias vs the Utopian Ambitions of the Historical Avant-garde. 2.3.9 Retroactive Manifestos. 2.4 Architectural Research. 2.4.1 Architectural Research as Avant-garde Design Research. 2.4.2 Architecture Schools as Laboratories. 2.5 The Necessity of Demarcation. 2.5.1 The Differentiation of Art and Architecture. 2.5.2 The Differentiation of Science and Architecture. 2.5.3 The Differentiation of Architecture and Engineering. 2.5.4 The Rationality of Demarcation. 2.5.5 The Specificity of Architecture within the Design Disciplines. 3 Architecture as Autopoietic System - Operations, Structures and Processes. 3.1 Architectural Autopoiesis within Functionally Differentiated Society. 3.1.1 Niklas Luhmann''s Theory of Modern Society. 3.1.2 Third Order Observation. 3.1.3 Codes and Media. 3.1.4 The Concept of Social Autopoiesis. 3.2 The Autonomy of Architecture. 3.2.1 Openness through Closure. 3.2.2 Irritations. 3.2.3 Communication Structures. 3.3 The Elemental Operation of Architecture. 3.3.1 Design Decisions. 3.3.2 Network-dependency of Elemental Operations. 3.3.3 Design Decisions and External Demands. 3.4 The Lead-distinction within Architecture and the Design Disciplines. 3.4.1 The Primacy of Distinctions. 3.4.2 Form vs Function as the Lead-distinction within the Design Disciplines. 3.4.3 The Double Reference of the Design Disciplines. 3.5 The Codification of Architecture. 3.5.1 Binary Codes. 3.5.2 Utility and Beauty as the Double Code of Architecture. 3.5.3 Polycontexturality. 3.5.4 The Unique Double Code of Architecture as Demarcation Device. 3.5.5 The Double Code of Architecture and the Triple Code of Avant-garde Architecture. 3.5.6 Discursive Oscillation: Coping with an Expanding Universe of Possibility. 3.5.7 Abstraction and Openness. 3.6 Architectural Styles. 3.6.1 The Concept of Style(s). 3.6.2 The Rationality of Style(s). 3.6.3 Styles as the Necessary Programmes of Architecture. 3.6.4 Styles Regulate Form and Function. 3.6.5 Reluctant Styles. 3.6.6 The Inescapability of the Formal A Priori. 3.6.7 The Double Contingency of Style Formation. 3.6.8 Stylistic Awareness as Second Order Observation. 3.6.9 Progress as Progression of Styles. 3.7 Styles as Research Programmes. 3.7.1 The Creativity of Styles/Research Programmes. 3.7.2 The Tenacity of Styles/Research Programmes. 3.7.3 The Structure of Styles/Research Programmes: Autonomy, Hard Core, Heuristics. 3.7.4 The Great Historical Styles: Hard Core and Heuristics. 3.7.5 Problem Domain and Solution Space as Sources of Stylistic Innovation. 3.7.6 Paradigmatic Mainline and Speculative Extrapolation. 3.7.7 Progressive vs Degenerate Styles/Research Programmes. 3.7.8 Methodological Tolerance. 3.8 The Rationality of Aesthetic Values. 3.8.1 The Historical Transformation of Aesthetic Values. 3.8.2 Aesthetic Values and the Code of Beauty. 3.8.3 The Mystery of Beauty. 3.8.4 Formal A Priori, Idiom and Aesthetic Values. 3.8.5 The Necessity of Aesthetic Revolutions. 3.8.6 Aesthetic Values: Designers vs Users. 3.9 The Double-nexus of Architectural Communications: Themes vs Projects. 3.9.1 The Unity of the Difference between Themes and Projects. 3.9.2 The Difference between Themes and Projects. 3.9.3 The Interaction between Themes and Projects. 4 The Medium of Architecture. 4.1 Medium and Form. 4.1.1 Symbolically Generalized Media of Communication. 4.1.2 The Medium as Revealing and Concealing. 4.1.3 The Medium as Universe of Possibilities. 4.1.4 Medium and Manner. 4.1.5 The Standard Medium of Architecture. 4.1.6 Recursive Self-reference. 4.2 The Medium and the Time Structure of the Design Process. 4.2.1 Differance: The Productive Vagueness of the Medium. 4.2.2 The Diagram. 4.2.3 Specious vs Point-like Time: The Time Structure of the Architectural Project. 5 The Societal Function of Architecture. 5.1 Architecture as Societal Function System. 5.1.1 Function vs Service. 5.1.2 Function Systems and the Functional Exigencies of Society. 5.1.3 Framing as Societal Function of Architecture. 5.1.4 The Definition of the Situation as Precondition of Social Interaction. 5.1.5 Framing Double Contingency. 5.1.6 Double Contingency Radicalized. 5.1.7 The relationship between Art and Architecture in terms of their Societal Function. 5.2 Innovation as Crucial Aspect of Architecture''s Societal Function. 5.2.1 The Burden and Risk of Permanent Innovation. 5.2.2 The Innovative Capacity of Architecture''s Operations and Structures. 5.2.3 Variation, Redundancy and Adaptive Pertinence. 5.3 Strategies and Techniques of Innovation. 5.3.1 The Power of Abstraction. 5.3.2 The history of Architectural Innovations. 5.3.3 Conceptual Manoeuvres. 5.4 Key Innovations: Place, Space, Field. 5.4.1 The Emergence of Architectural Space. 5.4.2 The Hegemony of Architectural Space. 5.4.3 The Transcendence of Architectural Space. 5.4.4 From Space to Field. Concluding Remarks. Appendix 1: ComparativeMatrix of Societal Function Systems. Appendix 2: Theses 1-24. References. Index. Picture Credits.

[v2]

Introduction to Volume 2 1 6. The Task of Architecture 5 6.1 Functions 7 6.1.1 Functions versus Capacities 11 6.1.2 Substantial versus Subsidiary Functions 17 6.1.3 Tectonics 19 6.1.4 The Categorization of Function-types 22 6.1.5 Problem-types (Function-types) vs Solution-types (Archetypes) 24 6.1.6 Patterns of Decomposition/Composition 30 6.1.7 Functional Reasoning via Action-artefact Networks 32 6.1.8 Limitations of Functional Expertise 39 6.2 Order via Organization and Articulation 42 6.2.1 Organization and Articulation: Historical and Systematic 47 6.2.2 Architectural Order 52 6.2.3 A Definition of Organization for Contemporary Architecture 57 6.2.4 Complicated, Complex, Organized, Ordered 61 6.3 Organization 70 6.3.1 Relating Spatial to Social Organization 72 6.3.2 Territorialization and Integration 77 6.3.3 Systems, Configurations, Organizations 80 6.4 Supplementing Architecture with a Science of Configuration 88 6.4.1 Set Theory 88 6.4.2 Harnessing Network Theory 93 6.4.3 Excursion: Network Theory 99 6.4.4 A City is not a Tree 106 6.4.5 Space Syntax: Concepts and Tools of Analysis 112 6.4.6 Space Syntax: Theoretical Claims 125 6.4.7 From Organization to Articulation: Taking Account of Cognition 131 6.5 Articulation 134 6.5.1 Articulation vs Organization 134 6.5.2 The Problem of Orientation and the Problematic of Legibility 137 6.5.3 Articulate vs Inarticulate Organization 138 6.5.4 Articulation as the Core Competency of Architecture 139 6.5.5 Generalizing the Concept of Function 140 6.6 The Phenomenological vs the Semiological Dimension of Architecture 142 6.7 The Phenomenological Dimension of Architectural Articulation 145 6.7.1 The Perceptual Constitution of Objects and Spaces 147 6.7.2 Cognitive Principles of Gestalt-Perception 153 6.7.3 Parametric Figuration 165 6.8 The Semiological Dimension of Architectural Articulation 167 6.8.1 The Built Works of Architecture as Framing Communications 171 6.8.2 Analogy: Language and Built Environment as Media of Communication 176 6.8.3 Signs as Communications 181 6.8.4 Territory as Fundamental Semiological Unit 183 6.8.5 Saussure''s Insight: Language as System of Correlated Differences 189 6.8.6 Extra-Semiological Demands on Architecture''s Medial Substrate 193 6.8.7 Syntagmatic vs Paradigmatic Relations 196 6.9 Prolegomenon to Architecture''s Semiological Project 200 6.9.1 The Scope of Architecture''s Signified 201 6.9.2 The Composite Character of the Architectural Sign 206 6.9.3 Absolute and Relative Arbitrariness 210 6.9.4 Natural and Artificial Semiosis 215 6.9.5 Designing Architecture''s Semiological Project 222 6.9.6 Cognitive and Attentional Conditions of Architectural Communication 229 6.9.7 Speculation: Expanding the Expressive Power of Architectural Sign Systems 232 6.10 The Semiological Project and the General Project of Architectural Order 238 6.10.1 The Semiological Project in Relation to the Organizational and the Phenomenological Project 239 6.10.2 Relationship between Architectural Languages and Architectural Styles 244 6.10.3 The Requisite Variety of Architectural Articulation 246 7. The Design Process 251 7.1 Contemporary Context and Aim of Design Process Theory 254 7.2 Towards a Contemporary Design Process Reflection and Design Methodology 257 7.2.1 Method vs Process 258 7.3 The Design Process as Problem-solving Process 263 7.3.1 The Design Process as Information-processing Process 264 7.3.2 The Structure of Information-processing Systems 269 7.3.3 Programmes 272 7.3.4 The Task Environment and its Representation as Problem Space 277 7.3.5 Problem Solving as Search in a State Space 284 7.3.6 Planning Spaces 295 7.3.7 Heuristic versus Exhaustive Problem-solving Methods 298 7.4 Differentiating Classical, Modern and Contemporary Processes 311 7.5 Problem Definition and Problem Structure 318 7.5.1 Wicked Problems 319 7.5.2 The Structure of Ill-structured Problems 323 7.5.3 An Information-processing Model for Information-rich Design Processes 332 7.6 Rationality: Retrospective and Prospective 337 7.6.1 Rational in Retrospect: Observing Innovative Design Practice 341 7.6.2 Prospective Rationality 355 7.6.3 Processing the Three Task Dimensions of Architecture 358 7.7 Modelling Spaces 361 8. Architecture and Society 379 8.1 World Architecture within World Society 382 8.2 Autonomy vs Authority 385 8.3 Architecture''s Conception of Society 390 8.3.1 The Crisis of Modernism''s Conception of Society 394 8.3.2 Social Systems Theory and the Theory of Architectural Autopoiesis 396 8.4 Architecture in Relation to other Societal Subsystems 398 8.4.1 Architecture In Relation to the Economic System 401 8.4.2 The Economy and the Design-Principle of Economy of Means 402 8.4.3 Economic Conditions of Architectural Discourse 406 8.4.4 Architecture and Education 407 8.5 Architecture as Profession and Professional Career 410 8.5.1 Authorship, Reputation, Oeuvre 411 8.5.2 Centre-periphery Differentiation within Architecture 414 8.5.3 The Absorption of Uncertainty 418 8.5.4 The Architectural Design Studio as Organization 420 8.6 The Built Environment as Primordial Condition of Society 422 8.6.1 The Built Environment As Indispensable Substrate of Social Evolution 423 8.6.2 From Spatial Order to Conceptual Order 426 8.6.3 Beauty and the Evolution of Concepts of Order 434 9. Architecture and Politics 439 9.1 Is Political Architecture Possible? 440 9.1.1 Political Vacuum 441 9.1.2 Normal vs Revolutionary Politics 445 9.2 Theorizing the Relationship between Architecture and Politics 448 9.2.1 The Incommensurability of Architecture and Politics 448 9.2.2 Architecture Responds to Political Agendas - Three Scenarios 450 9.2.3 Service Provisions Between Architecture and Politics 453 9.3 Architecture Adapts to Political Development 459 9.3.1 Modern Architecture Calls on Politics 461 9.3.2 The ABC Group: Political Agitation Within Architecture 462 9.3.3 The Vicissitudes of Political Polarization 466 9.4 The Limitations of Critical Practice in Architecture 470 9.4.1 General Political Critique and Macro-political Ambitions 470 9.4.2 Architecture''s ''Micro-Political'' Agency: Manipulating Non-political Power 472 9.4.3 Who Controls the Power-distributing Capacity of Design? 474 9.4.4 Public Competitions As Structural Coupling between Architecture and Politics 477 10. The Self-descriptions of Architecture 484 10.1 Theoretical Underpinnings 485 10.1.1 Reference as Self-reference 489 10.1.2 Levels of Self-reference 490 10.2 The Necessity of Reflection: Architectural Theory as Reflection Theory 496 10.2.1 Continuity vs Consistency 501 10.2.2 Categorical vs Variable Structures of Communication 504 10.3 Classic Treatises 509 10.3.1 Alberti''s De re aedificatoria 511 10.3.2 Durand''s Precis des leccns d''architecture 543 10.3.3 Le Corbusier''s Vers une architecture 568 10.3.4 The Autopoiesis of Architecture 592 10.4 Architectural Historiography 606 10.4.1 History of Architecture''s Autonomization and Internal Structuration 608 10.4.2 History of Architectural Styles as Responses to Epochal Shifts in the Societal Environment 610 10.5 Architectural Criticism 615 11. Parametricism - The Parametric Paradigm and the Formation of a New Style 617 11.1 Parametricism as Epochal Style 622 11.1.1 Historiographical Sketch: The Epochal Alignment of Styles 627 11.1.2 A Unified Style for the 21st Century 642 11.1.3 The Maturity of Parametricism 646 11.1.4 Polarized Confrontation: Parametricism versus Minimalism 648 11.1.5 Styles as Design Research Programmes 651 11.2 The Parametricist Research Programme 654 11.2.1 Conceptual Definition of Parametricism 654 11.2.2 Operational Definition of Parametricism: The Defining Heuristics of Parametricism 656 11.2.3 Genealogy of the Parametricist Heuristics 660 11.2.4 Analogies: Emulating Natural Systems 663 11.2.5 Agendas Advancing Parametricism 669 11.2.6 The Agenda of Ecological Sustainability 676 11.3 Parametricist vs Modernist Urbanism 680 11.3.1 Simple Order, Disorder, Complex Order 681 11.3.2 Implementing Parametricist Urbanism 686 11.4 Elegance 700 12. Epilogue - The Design of a Theory 710 12.1 Theoretical Foundation: Communication Theory vs Historical Materialism? 714 12.2 The Theory of Architectural Autopoiesis as Unified Theory of Architecture 719 12.3 Notes on the Architecture of the Theory 722 12.4 The Theory as the Result of Contingent Theory Design Decisions 726 Concluding Remarks 735 Appendix 3: The Autopoiesis of Architecture in the Context of Three Classic Texts 737 Appendix 4: Theses 25-60 742 References 748 Index 759