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This book aims to help the reader to understand what motivates people to engage in risk taking behavior, such as participating in traffic, sports, financial investments, or courtship. The consequences of risk taking may be positive, or result in accidents and injuries, especially in traffic. The wealth of studies and theories (about 1000 references) is used to offer a cohesive, holistic view of risk motivation. The risk motivation theory is a dynamic state-trait model incorporating physiological, emotional and cognitive components of risk perception, processing and planning. If a deficit exists between desired and perceived risk, risk compensation behavior results. A feedback loop provides new information for the next perception-motivation-behavior process. Assumptions were tested and support was found with 120 subjects in a longitudinal study. The concepts and findings are discussed in relation to psychological theories and their meaning for our daily lives.

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CONTENTS
Foreword = ⅴ
Preface = xi
Table of Contents = xix
Lists of Tables and Figures = xxv
Chapter 1: What Is Risk Taking Behavior?
 1.1 A Short Description of the Long History of Risk Taking = 1
 1.2 Definitions of Risk Taking = 5
 1.3 The Multifacetedness of Risk Taking = 10
Chapter 2: How Do We Perceive Risks?
 2.1 Risk Perception and Risk Acceptance = 15
  2.1.1 Factors Influencing Risk Perception and Risk Acceptance = 16
  2.1.2 Research on Risk Perception and Risk Acceptance = 19
 2.2 Cross-Cultural Aspects of Risk Perception = 22
  2.2.1 Research Relating Culture and Risk Perception = 22
  2.2.2 Safety Culture = 25
Chapter 3: Who Engages In Risk Taking Behavior?
 3.1 Risk Taking and the Theory of Evolution = 28
  3.1.1 Evolutionary Aspects of Human Mating as Risk Taking = 29
  3.1.2 Risk Taking Behavior and Optimal Chances of Survival = 38
   Physiological Reward Systems for Optimal Risk Taking = 39
   Evolution, Cognitive Abilities, and Attitudes = 43
   Genetic Personality Components Found in Twin Studies = 44
  3.1.3 Risk Taking as Evolutionarily Advantageous Behavior = 49
 3.2 Risk Taking and Arousal = 53
  3.2.1 Historically Early Arousal Theories = 53
  3.2.2 Drive Reduction Theories = 54
  3.2.3 Inverted-U Theories of Optimal Arousal = 55
  3.2.4 Theories Relating Cognition, Arousal and Risk Taking = 58
   Empirical Support for Arousal Theories = 60
  3.2.5 Critical Points in Inverted-U Arousal Theories = 63
  3.2.6 Risk Taking, Arousal, and Physiological Measurements = 65
   Heart Rate, and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) = 67
   Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) = 68
   Biochemical Analyses = 69
  3.2.7 Problems with Physiological Measurements = 69
  3.2.8 Psycho-Physiological Coping Mechanisms = 70
   Physiological Mechanisms Changing Levels of Arousal = 70
   Psychological Mechanisms to Change Undesired Arousal = 74
 3.3 Individual (Personality) Differences and Risk Taking = 77
  3.3.1 Strength of the Nervous System Theories = 77
   Pavlov's Approach = 77
   Strelau's and Gray's Physiological Personality Models = 79
  3.3.2 Eysenck's Personality Theory = 81
  3.3.3 Personality Theories and Criminal Risk Taking = 84
   Criticism of the Personality-Criminality Link = 86
 3.4 Risk Taking and Sensation Seeking = 89
  3.4.1 Zuckerman's Optimal Level of Arousal Theory = 89
  3.4.2 The Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) = 92
   The Sensation Seeking Trait and Phenomenal Correlates = 93
   Sensation Seeking and Choices in Life = 95
   Sensation Seeking and Other Personality Theories = 97
   Criticism of Zuckerman's Theory of Sensation Seeking = 99
 3.5 Reversal Theory = 101
  3.5.1 Pleasant and Unpleasant Risk Taking (Reversal Theory) = 101
   The Concepts of Telic ／ Paratelic Dominance = 102
   Research on Reversal Theory = 106
   Reversal Theory and Other Personality Theories = 108
  3.5.2 Reversal Theory and Risk Taking = 110
Chapter 4: Which Situational Factors Influence Risk Taking Behavior?
 4.1 Decision Making Under Uncertainty = 113
 4.2 Historical Development of Expectancy x Value Theories = 114
 4.3 Modern Expectancy x Value Theories = 117
  4.3.1 Subjective Expected Utility Theory = 117
  4.3.2 Portfolio Theory = 118
  4.3.3 Prospect Theory = 118
  4.3.4 Conflict Theory = 120
  4.3.5 Rubikon Model = 120
  4.3.6 Two-Factor Theory for Risky Choice = 121
  4.3.7 Affective Balance Theory = 122
  4.3.8 Decision Making as a Product of Evolutionary Theory = 123
  4.3.9 Multi Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) = 124
  4.3.10 Decision Field Theory and "Random Models" = 125
 4.4 Utility Theories and Risk Taking = 127
Chapter 5: How Is Risk Taking Motivated and Emotionally Experienced?
 5.1 Risk Taking and Theories of Motivation = 129
  5.1.1 Risk Taking Behavior and Achievement Motivation = 131
  5.1.2 The Dynamics of Action Model of Motivation = 133
  5.1.3 Individual Differences in Risk Taking Motivation = 135
  5.1.4 Academic Risk Taking Motivation = 137
 5.2 Risk Taking and Emotions = 139
  5.2.1 The Motivating Role of Emotions in Risk Taking = 139
   Prime Theory = 140
   Frijda's Laws of Emotion = 143
  5.2.2 Individual Differences in Affective Reactivity = 146
  5.2.3 Conscious and ／ or Unconscious Processing of Emotions = 150
   Izard's Four Systems for Emotion Activation = 153
   Leibnitz 1765 Concept of "Apperception" = 155
  5.2.4 Empirical Support for an Emotion - Risk Taking Link = 157
   Emotions and Evolution = 157
   The Influence of Emotions on Risk Taking Behavior = 159
Chapter 6: What Controls Risk Taking Behavior?
 6.1 Personal Control: Definitions and Historical Concepts = 162
 6.2 Personal Control and Evolutionary Utility = 165
 6.3 Personal Control and Psycho-Biological Consequences = 167
  6.3.1 Personal Control, Stress and Vocational Behavior = 170
 6.4 Perceived Control and Risk Taking Behavior = 172
 6.5 Illusion of Control = 174
 6.6 The Two-Process Model of Perceived Control = 176
  6.6.1 Desire for Personal Control and Risk Taking = 178
Chapter 7: What Are the Consequences of Risk Taking Behavior?
 7.1 Young People, Risk Taking Behavior and Accidents = 183
 7.2 Risk Taking Behavior and Sport Accidents = 185
 7.3 Risk Taking Behavior and Industrial Accidents = 188
  7.3.1 Human Error and Accidents = 189
  7.3.2 Influencing Occupational Risk Taking Behavior = 192
 7.4 Risk Taking and Traffic Accidents = 196
  7.4.1 Young Males and Traffic Accidents = 197
  7.4.2 Risk Taking Behavior and Motorcycling = 199
  7.4.3 Risk Taking Behavior, Alcohol and Traffic Accidents = 200
  7.4.4 Stress, Risk Taking and Traffic Accidents = 202
 7.5 Theories of Risk Taking Behavior in Traffic = 203
  7.5.1 Accident Proneness = 204
  7.5.2 Traffic Accident Models Focussing on Undesired Risk = 208
Chapter 8: How Do We Adapt to the Desire for and the Control of Risk Taking Behavior?
 8.1 Risk Compensation Behavior and Risk Homeostasis Theory = 212
 8.2 Technical or Psychological Accident Countermeasures? = 217
 8.3 Risk Homeostasis Theory Applied to Accident Reduction = 222
  8.3.1 Financial Incentives to Reduce Risk Taking Behavior = 222
  8.3.2 Open Issues in Risk Homeostasis Theory = 224
Chapter 9: How Can We Explain Risk Taking Behavior Holistically?
 9.1 Developing Risk Motivation Theory = 236
  9.1.1 Key Elements in Risk Taking Theories = 236
  9.1.2 The Components of Risk Motivation Theory = 240
   Risk Personality Factors and Risk History = 242
   Situational Risk Factors = 243
   Risk Perception = 244
   Physiological Target Level Appraisal = 244
   Emotional Target Level Appraisal = 245
   Cognitive Target Level Appraisal = 246
   Total Utility Assessment, Total Target Level of Risk = 247
   Motivation for Action, Action Plan = 248
   Continuing or Compensatory Action, Feedback = 248
 9.2 Research Examining Risk Motivation Theory = 250
  9.2.1 Methodological Requirements to Examine Risk Taking = 250
  9.2.2 Dice Rolling Experiment = 255
   Results of the Dice Experiment = 256
  9.2.3 The Psychomotor Experiment = 258
   Results of the Psychomotor Experiment = 262
  9.2.4 The Cognitive "Trivial-Pursuit Type" Experiment = 266
   Results of the Cognitive "Trivial-Pursuit Type" Experiment = 268
  9.2.5 Results Regarding Physiological and Emotional Measures = 270
   Physiological Measures = 270
   Emotional Mesures = 271
  9.2.6 Risk Personality and Risk History Assessment = 272
Chapter 10: What Does Risk Motivation Mean for Our Daily Lives as Researchers and as "Normal" Risk Takers?
 10.1 Research Implications of a Motivation for Risks = 280
  10.1.1 Is There a Personality Factor in Risk Taking? = 280
  10.1.2 What Is Our Motive to Seek Out Risks? = 282
   The Power of Incentives = 283
  10.1.3 How Do We Master and Control Our Risk Motivation? = 285
  10.1.4 How Do We Compensate for Perceived Risks? = 287
   What Differentiates RMT from RHT? = 287
  10.1.5 Can We Describe Risk Taking Behavior Holistically? = 288
 10.2 Implications of a Risk Motivation for the "Real Life" = 290
  10.2.1 Implications for Accident Reduction = 290
  10.2.2 The Insurmountable Desire for Challenges in Our Daily Lives = 292
 10.3 Personal Conclusions = 296
References = 297
Author Index = 361
Subject Index = 377