CONTENTS
Preface = xv
1. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS = 1
Introduction = 1
Basic Design Features = 2
Combustor Requirements = 4
Combustor Types = 4
Tubular chamber = 5
Annular chamber = 5
Tuboannular chamber = 5
Diffuser = 5
Primary Zone = 9
Intermediate Zone = 10
Dilution Zone = 12
Fuel Preparation = 12
Pressure-swirl atomizer = 13
Spill-return atomizer = 14
Rotary atomizer = 14
Airblastatomizer = 14
Air-assist atomizer = 15
Vaporizer = 15
Premix-prevaporize combustor = 16
Gas injection = 16
Wall Cooling = 17
Wall-cooling techniques = 18
Combustor Configurations = 20
Short Combustors = 22
Combustors for Low Emissions = 24
Combustors for Small Engines = 27
Industrial Chambers = 29
Fuels = 30
References = 31
2. COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTALS = 33
Introduction = 33
Preflame combustion = 33
Deflagration = 33
Detonation = 33
Classification of Flames = 34
Physics or Chemistry? = 34
Flammability Limits = 35
Effect of inert diluents and oxygen enrichment on flammability limits = 38
Chemical Aspects = 38
Chemical kinetics = 39
Global reaction-rate theory = 41
Laminar Premixed Flames = 44
Measurement of burning velocity = 44
Factors influencing laminar flame speed = 46
Laminar flame-propagation theory = 49
Turbulent Premixed Flames = 50
Region 1 = 52
Region 3 = 52
Region 2 = 52
Turbulent flame structure = 53
Laminar Diffusion Flames = 55
Turbulent Diffusion Flames = 57
Jet mixing = 58
Flame Propagation in Heterogeneous Mixtures = 59
Evaporation = 61
Evaporation time = 61
Spontaneous-Ignition Delay Time = 62
Flashback = 65
Stoichiometry = 66
Adiabatic Flame Temperature = 66
Factors influencing the adiabatic flame temperature = 67
Nomenclature = 72
References = 73
Bibliography = 75
3. DIFFUSERS = 77
Introduction = 77
Diffuser Geometry = 78
Flow Regimes = 80
Performance Criteria = 81
Pressure-recovery coefficient = 83
Overall effectiveness = 83
Loss coefficient = 84
Performance = 84
Conical diffusers = 85
Two-dimensional diffusers = 86
Annular diffusers = 87
Comparison of various diffuser types = 87
Effect of Inlet Flow Conditions on Performance = 89
Reynolds number = 89
Mach number = 89
Turbulence = 90
Swirl = 90
Inlet boundarylayer thickness = 91
Profile-Distortion Parameters = 91
Blockagefactor = 91
Kinetic-energy coefficient = 93
Flow Control = 93
Splitter vanes = 94
Vortex generators = 94
Boundary-layer control by suction = 94
Vortex-controlled diffuser = 95
Hybrid diffusers = 97
Design Considerations = 98
Faired diffusers = 98
Dump diffuser = 100
Diffusers for reverse-flow combustors = 101
Diffusers for tubular and tuboannular combustors = 102
Testing of diffusers = 102
Nomenclature = 103
References = 103
4. AERODYNAMICS = 107
Introduction = 107
Reference Quantities = 107
Pressure-Loss Parameters = 108
Relationship Between Size and Pressure Loss = 111
Casing area = 111
Liner area = 111
Flow in the Annulus = 113
Flow through Liner Holes = 114
Discharge coefficient = 114
Initial jet angle = 117
Jet trajectories = 117
Jet mixing = 123
Swirler Aerodynamics = 126
Swirler types = 127
FIow pattern = 127
Size of recirculation zone = 128
Swirl number = 129
Flow reversal = 131
Flow entminment = 133
Pressure loss = 133
Geometry = 134
Stabilization by Opposing Jets = 135
Bluff-Body Stabilization = 137
Airflow Distribution within Liner = 137
Pritwry zone = 138
Intermediate zone = 140
Dilution zone = 141
Dilution-zone design = 143
Correlation of data = 146
Rig testing for pattern factor = 148
Mathematical Modeling = 148
Concluding Remarks = 151
Nomenclature = 151
References = 153
5. COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY = 157
Introduction = 157
The Combustion Process = 157
Reaction-Rate-Controlled Systems = 158
Burning-velocity model = 158
Stirred-reactor model = 164
Comparison of buming-velocity and stirred-reactor models = 166
Mixing-Controlled Systems = 167
Evaporation-Rate-Controlled Systems = 168
Systems Controlled by Reaction Rate and Evaporation = 174
Primary-Zone Combustion Efficiency = 174
Heat-Release Criteria = 174
Summary = 175
Nomenclature = 176
References = 178
6. FLAME STABILIZATION = 179
Introduction = 179
Measurement of stability = 180
Water-injection technique = 181
Bluff-Body Flameholders = 183
Mechanism offlame stabilization = 184
Cold-flow studies = 184
Residence time = 185
Blockage effects = 185
Experimental findings on bluff-body flame stabilization = 188
Summary of experimental findings = 196
Theoretical Aspects = 197
Charactetistic-time model = 197
Stirred-reactor theory = 198
Weak-extinction limits = 199
Blowout velocity = 201
Flame Stabilization in Combustion Chambers = 206
Fuel effects = 208
Fuel injection = 208
Theoretical aspects 210
Miscellaneous Types of Flarneholders = 211
Step flameholder = 211
Perforated plates = 211
Stirred reactors = 213
Fluid jets = 214
Catalytic flameholders = 216
Nomenclature = 216
References = 217
7. IGNITION = 221
Introduction = 221
Assessment of Ignition Performance = 222
Spark Ignition = 222
The surface-discharge igniter = 224
Igniter life = 225
Influence of igniter design = 225
Spark duration = 226
Sparking rate = 227
The high-energy ignition unit = 227
Igniter location = 228
Gas addition = 230
Oxygen injection = 231
Chemical ignition = 231
Other Forms of Ignition = 231
Torch igniter = 231
Glow plug = 232
Hot-surface ignition = 232
Plasma jets = 233
The Ignition Process = 233
Factors influencing phase 1 = 234
Factors influencing phase 2 = 234
Factors influencing phase 3 = 234
Ignition Theory = 234
Theory of Lewis and von Elbe = 235
Theory of Fenn = 235
Theory of Yang = 236
Theory of Swett = 236
Theory of Ballal and Lefebvre = 236
Ignition Performance = 246
Ignition system = 246
Flow variables = 247
Fuel parameters = 250
Nomenclature = 253
References = 254
8. HEAT TRANSFER = 257
Introduction = 257
Heat-Transfer Processes = 258
Internal Radiation = 259
Radiation from nonluminous gases = 259
Radiation from luminous gases = 266
External Radiation = 275
Internal Convection = 276
External Convection = 277
Calculation of Uncooled Liner Temperature = 278
Method of calculation = 278
Signii7cance of calculated uncooled liner temperature = 281
Effect of chamber variables on liner wall te7nperature = 282
Film Cooling = 286
Total-head devices = 287
SPlash-coolingrings = 288
Machined rings = 288
Relative merits of film-cooling devices = 288
Correlation of Film-Cooling Data = 289
Theories based on turbulent boundary-layer model = 290
Theories based on wall-jet model = 291
Calculation Of film-cooled wall temperature = 295
Influence offilm cooling on heat-transfer rates = 299
Alternative Methods of Wall Cooling = 299
Film cooling with augmented convection = 300
Impingement cooling = 301
Transpiration cooling = 302
Effusion cooling = 308
Louvered walls = 309
Finned surfaces = 311
Refractory linings = 312
High-temperature materials = 314
Measurement of wall temperature = 315
Nomenclature = 316
References = 317
9. GAS TURBINE FUELS = 321
Introduction = 321
Types of Hydrocarbons = 322
Paraffins = 323
Olefins = 324
Naphthenes = 324
Aromatics = 325
Production of Liquid Fuels = 326
Removal of sulfur compounds = 326
Acid treatment = 327
Clay treatment = 327
Removal of water = 327
Contaminants = 327
Asphaltenes = 327
Gum = 327
Sediment = 328
Ash = 328
Water = 328
Sulfur = 329
Sodium = 329
Vanadium = 330
Additives = 331
Gum prevention = 331
Rust inhibition = 331
Anti-icing = 331
Antistatic = 331
Lubricity = 332
Antismoke = 332
Physical Properties of Fuels = 333
Relative density = 333
API gravity = 333
Molecular mass = 333
Distillation range = 333
Vapor pressure = 335
Flash point = 336
Volatility = 336
Viscosity = 336
Surface tension = 337
Freezing point = 337
Specific heat = 338
Latent heat = 341
Thermal conductivity = 341
Combustion Properties of Fuels = 341
Calorific value = 341
Enthalpy = 342
Spontaneous-ignition temperature = 344
Limits of flammability = 345
Soot-fonning tendency = 346
Conventional Uquid Fuels = 347
Light true distillates = 348
Heavy true distillates = 348
Ash-bearingfuels = 348
Conventional Gaseous Fuels = 349
Natural gas = 349
Coal gas = 349
Coke-oven gas = 351
Other gases = 351
liquid-Fuel Specifications and Availabflity = 351
Fuels in Aircraft Gas Turbines = 353
Effects of reduction in pressure = 355
Effects of reduction in temperature = 356
Effects of increase in temperature = 356
Aircraft fuel requirements = 357
Safety fuels = 358
Fuels in Industrial Gas Turbines = 359
Alternative Hydrocarbon Fuels = 360
Tar sands = 360
Oil shale = 360
Fuel from coal = 360
Broad-specification fuels = 361
Synthetic Fuels = 363
Hydrogen = 363
Methane = 363
Propane = 365
Ammonia = 365
Alcohols = 365
Slurry fuels = 365
References = 366
10. FUEL INJECTION = 371
Introduction = 371
Historical aspects = 371
Injector Requirements = 372
The Atomization Process = 372
Jet breakup = 373
Sheet breakup = 374
Spray Characteristics = 375
Mean drop size = 375
Drop size distribution = 373
Patternation = 381
Cone angle = 381
Dispersion = 382
Penetration = 382
Spray Measurement = 383
Drop size = 383
Cone angle = 387
Pattemation = 387
Plain-Orifice Atomizer = 387
Simplex Atomizer = 389
Discharge coefficient = 391
Flow rate = 394
Spray-cone angle = 394
Effect of variables on mean drop size = 395
Drop-size relationships = 399
Drop-size analysis = 401
Drop size distribution = 401
Spray penetration = 401
Shroud air = 402
Wide-Range Atomizers = 403
Duplex atomizer = 403
Dual-orifice atomizer = 406
Spill atomizer = 407
Fan-Spray Atomizers = 408
Rotary Atomizers = 409
Slinger system = 411
Air-Assist Atomizers = 412
Airblast Atomizers = 413
Experimental studies = 414
Analysis of drop-size relationships = 441
Influence of liquid film thickness = 443
Mechanism of sheet disintegration = 444
Double-swirler concept = 445
Summary of main points = 446
Vaporizer System = 448
Gas Injection = 451
Relative Merits of Various Methods of Fuel Injection = 451
Future Trends = 453
Nomenclature = 456
References = 457
11. EMISSIONS = 463
Introduction = 463
Emissions Regulations = 464
Mechanisms of Pollutant Formation = 467
Carbon monoxide = 467
Unburned hydrocarbons = 468
Oxides of nitrogen = 469
Smoke = 473
Methods of Pollutant Reduction = 479
Carbon monoxide = 479
Unburned hydrocarbons = 481
Oxides of nitrogen = 481
Smoke = 486
Approaches to the Design of Low-Emissions Combustors = 487
Variable geometry = 488
Staged combustion = 488
Lean premix-prevaporize combustion = 489
Catalytic combustion = 490
Progress in the Development of Low-Emissions Combustors = 491
Large engines = 492
Small engines = 494
Reduction of low-power emissions = 497
Lean premix-prevaporize combustion = 499
Prediction of Emissions Characteristics = 501
Smoke Measurement = 505
Optical techniques = 505
Collection methods = 506
Emissions Sampling = 507
Influence of Ambient Conditions on Engine Emissions = 508
Concluding Remarks = 508
Nomenclature = 509
References = 509
Author Index = 515
Subject Index = 523
