CONTENTS
PREFACE = xiii
1. INTRODUCTION = 1
1.1 Elementary Steam Power Plant = 1
1.2 Combustion Engines = 2
1.3 Direct Energy Conversion = 4
1.4 Geothermal Power Plant = 6
1.5 Solar Energy = 6
1.6 Founders of Thermodynamics = 7
2. DEFINITIONS AND UNITS = 9
2.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis = 9
2.2 Substances = 10
2.3 Systems-Fixed Mass and Fixed Space = 10
2.4 Properties, Intensive and Extensive = 12
2.5 Phases of a Substance = 13
2.6 Processes and Cycles = 13
2.7 Units of Force and Mass = 14
2.8 Specific Volume = 17
2.9 Pressure = 18
2.10 Equality of Temperature = 23
2.11 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics = 23
2.12 Temperature Scales = 24
3. CONSERVATION OF MASS AND ENERGY = 28
3.1 Conservation of Mass = 28
3.2 Energy Forms = 31
3.3 First Corollary of the First Law = 43
3.4 Energy as a Property = 45
3.5 Second Corollary of the First Law = 46
3.6 System Boundaries = 53
4. PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES = 59
4.1 Pure Substance = 59
4.2 Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium = 60
4.3 Saturated Properties = 60
4.4 Critical Properties = 61
4.5 Solid-Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium = 62
4.6 Quality = 64
4.7 Three-Dimensional Surface = 64
4.8 Tables of Thermodynamic Properties = 66
5. IDEAL GAS AND SPECIFIC HEAT = 77
5.1 Ideal-Gas Equations of State = 77
5.2 Actual-Gas Equations of State = 80
5.3 Boyle's Law = 84
5.4 Charles7 Law = 84
5.5 Specific Heat = 87
5.6 Gas Tables = 92
6. PROCESSES USING TABLES AND GAS EQUATIONS OF STATE = 97
6.1 Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Processes = 97
6.2 Closed Systems = 98
6.3 Open Systems = 107
6.4 Polytropic Process-Ideal Gas = 111
6.5 Three-Process Cycles = 116
6.6 Transient Flow = 118
7. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND THE CARNOT CYCLE = 128
7.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics = 128
7.2 Energy Level = 128
7.3 Second Law for a Cycle = 129
7.4 Carnot Cycle = 131
7.5 Carnot Engine = 131
7.6 Mean Effective Pressure = 135
7.7 Reversed Carnot Engine = 137
7.8 First Corollary of the Second Law = 139
7.9 Second Corollary of the Second Law = 140
7.10 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale = 140
8. ENTROPY = 146
8.1 Clausius Inequality = 146
8.2 Derivation of Entropy = 148
8.3 Third Law of Thermodynamics = 151
8.4 Equilibrium State = 151
8.5 Entropy Change of a Closed System = 152
8.6 Calculation of Entropy Change for Ideal Gases = 153
8.7 Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume = 155
8.8 Entropy of a Pure Substance = 156
8.9 Carnot Cycle Using.T-S Coordinates = 158
8.10 Heat and Work as Areas = 159
8.11 The Second Law for Open Systems = 160
8.12 Further Considerations = 162
9. AVAILABLE ENERGY AND AVAILABILITY = 166
9.1 Available Energy for Systems with Heat Transfer = 166
9.2 Open Systems, Steady Flow = 172
9.3 Further Considerations of Available Energy-Availability = 176
9.4 Second-Law Efficiency = 179
10. THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS = 188
10.1 Interpreting Differentials and Partial Derivatives = 188
10.2 An Important Relationship = 191
10.3 Application of Mathematical Methods to Thermodynamic Relations = 193
10.4 Maxwell's Relations = 194
10.5 Specific Heats, Enthalpy, and Internal Energy = 195
10.6 Clapeyron Equation = 199
1O.7 Important Physical Coefficients = 201
10.8 Real-Gas Behavior = 204
11. VAPOR POWER CYCLES = 209
11.1 Carnot Vapor Cycle = 209
11.2 The Rankine Cycle = 210
11.3 Rankine Cycle Components = 212
11.4 Efficiencies = 217
11.5 Regenerative Cycles = 220
11.6 Reheat Cycles = 228
11.7 Reheat-Regenerative Cycle = 229
11.8 Supercritical and Binary Vapor Cycles = 232
11.9 Steam-Turbine Reheat Factor and Condition Curve = 236
11.10 Geothermal Energy = 238
12. REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS = 247
12.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle = 247
12.2 Refrigerant Considerations = 248
12.3 Vapor-Compression Cycle = 250
12.4 Multistage Vapor-Compression Systems = 254
12.5 kbsorption Refrigeration Systems = 259
12.6 Heat Pump = 267
12.7 Low Temperature and Liquefaction = 269
13. MIXTURES : GAS-GAS AND GAS-VAPOR = 276
13.1 Ideal-Gas Mixtures = 276
13.2 Gas-Vapor Mixtures = 282
13.3 Psychrometer = 289
13.4 Psychrometric Chart = 290
13.5 Air-Conditioning Processes = 292
13.6 Cooling Towers = 296
14. REACTIVE SYSTEMS = 303
14.1 Hydrocarbon Fuels = 303
14.2 Combustion Process = 304
14.3 Theoretical Air = 305
14.4 Air-Fuel Ratio = 307
14.5 Products of Combustion = 309
14.6 Enthalpy of Formation = 312
14.7 First-Law Analysis for Steady-State Reacting Systems = 314
14.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature = 318
14.9 Enthalpy of Combustion, Heating Value = 320
14.10 Second-Law Analysis = 322
14.11 1Chemical Equilibrium and Dissociation = 327
14.12 Steam Generator Efficiency = 334
14.13 Fuel Cells = 335
15. GAS COMPRESSORS = 344
15.1 Compressors Without Clearance = 344
15.2 Reciprocating Compressors with Clearance = 347
15.3 Volumetric Efficiency = 350
15.4Multistage Compression = 353
15.5 Compressor Performance Factors = 356
15.6 Rotative Compressors = 357
16. INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES = 366
16.1 Air-Standard Cycles = 366
16.2 Open-Cycle Analysis = 382
16.3 Actual Diesel and Otto Cycles = 386
16.4 Cycle Comparisons = 389
16.5 Engine Performance Analysis = 389
16.6 Wankel Engine = 391
16.7 Engine Efficiencies = 392
16.8 Power Measurement = 394
17. GAS TURBINES = 403
17.1 Fundamental Gas-Turbine Cycle = 403
17.2 Cycle Analysis = 404
17.3 Efficiencies = 407
17.4 Open-Cycle Analysis = 410
17.5 Combustion Efficiency = 413
17.6 Regeneration = 413
17.7 Reheating, Intercooling = 419
17.8 Combined Cycle = 423
17.9 Aircraft Gas Turbines = 426
18. FLUID FLOW AND NOZZLES = 438
18.1 Conservation of Mass = 438
18.2 Conservation of Momentum = 439
18.3 Acoustic Velocity = 442
18.4 Stagnation Properties = 444
18.5 Mach Number = 446
18.6 First-Law Analysis = 446
18.7 Nozzles = 447
18.8 Supersaturation = 453
18.9 Shock Waves = 457
18.10 Diffuser = 458
18.11 Flow Measurement = 460
18.12 Wind Power = 461
19. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS = 469
19.1 Modes of Heat Transfer 469 = -
19.2 Laws of Heat Transfer = 470
19.3 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer = 477
19.4 Conduction Through A Composite Wall = 479
19.5 Conduction in Cylindrical Coordinates = 480
19.6 Critical Insulation Thickness = 483
19.7 Heat Exchangers = 484
REFERENCES = 501
LIST OF SYMBOLS = 503
APPENDIX TABLES = 505
A.1 Gas Constants and Specific Heats at Low Pressures = 507
A.2 Properties of Air at Low Pressures = 507
A.3 Products-400 Percent Theoretical Air-at Low Pressures = 510
A.4 Products-200 Percent Theoretical Air-at Low Pressures = 512
A.5 Saturated Steam Temperature Table = 514
A.6 Saturated Steam Pressure Table = 517
A.7 Superheated Steam Vapor Table = 520
A.8 Compressed Liquid Table = 528
A.9 Saturated Ammonia Table = 530
A.10 Superheated Ammonia Table = 532
A.11 Saturated Freon-12 Table = 535
A.12 Superheated Freon-12 Table = 537
A.13 Properties of Selected Materials at 200C = 541
A.14 Physical Properties of Selected Fluids = 542
B.1 Mollier (EnthalprEntropy) Diagram for Steam = 544
B.2 Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Steam = 546
B.3 Ammonia-Water Equilibrium Chart = 547
B.4 Psychrometric Chart = 548
C.1 Enthalpies of Formation, Gibbs Function of Formation, and Absolute Entropy at 25˚C and 1 atm Pressure = 549
C.2 Enthalpy of Formation at 25˚C, Ideal-Gas Enthalpy, and Absolute Entropy at 0.1 MPa Pressure = 550
C.3 Enthalpy of Combustion (Heating Value) of Various Compounds = 559
C.4 Natural Logarithm of Equilibrium Constant K = 560
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS = 561
INDEX = 565
