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"An important, sophisticated and complex monograph . . . Both the theoretical analysis and the empirical findings constitute major contributions to cross-cultural value analysis and the cross-cultural study of work motivations and organizational dynamics. This book is also a valuable resource for anyone interested in a historical or anthropological approach to cross-cultural comparisons."
--PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY

The Second Edition of this classic work, first published in 1981 and an international best seller, explores the differences in thinking and social action that exist among members of more than 50 modern nations. Geert Hofstede argues that people carry "mental programs" which are developed in the family in early childhood and reinforced in schools and organizations, and that these programs contain components of national culture. They are expressed most clearly in the different values that predominate among people from different countries.

Geert Hofstede has completely rewritten, revised and updated Culture′s Consequences for the twenty-first century, he has broadened the book′s cross-disciplinary appeal, expanded the coverage of countries examined from 40 to more than 50, reformulated his arguments and a large amount of new literature has been included. The book is structured around five major dimensions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long term versus short-term orientation.

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CONTENTS

From the Preface to the First Edition(1980) = xv

Preface to the Second Edition = xvii

Summary of the Book = xix

1. Values and Culture = 1

 Summary of This Chapter = 1

 Definitions and Distinctions = 1

  Mental Programs = 1

  Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms = 4

  Values = 5

  Measuring Values = 7

  Culture = 9

  National Cultures and Their Stability = 11

  National Character and National Stereotypes = 13

  Cultural Relativism = 15

 Studying Culture = 15

  Comparing Cultures : Changing the Level of Analysis = 15

  Avoiding Ethnocentrism = 17

  The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach = 19

  Language and Translation = 21

  Matching Samples : Functional Equivalence = 23

  Modal and Marginal Phenomena = 24

 Dimensions of Culture = 24

  The Specific and the General = 24

  Searching for Dimensions of Culture = 26

  Dimensions Versus Typologies = 28

  Five Basic Problems of National Societies = 28

  Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature : Theory Based = 29

  Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature : Empirical = 31

 Culture Change = 34

  The Process of Culture Change = 34

  Culture Change and the IBM Data = 34

 Notes = 36

2. Data Collection, Treatment, and Validation = 41

 Summary of This Chapter = 41

 The Research Settings = 41

  The IBM Corporation = 41

  The Use of Attitude Surveys in IBM = 43

  Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration = 46

  The IBM Survey Database = 48

  A Second Research Setting : IMEDE Business School = 49

 Data Treatment = 49

  Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups = 49

  ANOVA : Country, Occupation, Gender, and Age = 50

  Comparing 40 Countries : Matching Occupations = 51

  Extension to 50 Countries P1us Three Regions = 52

  Selecting Stable Questions = 52

  Eclectic Analysis : Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance = 53

  Work Goal Importance Data : Eliminating Acquiescence = 56

  Work Goal Importance : Ecological Factor Analysis = 58

  Putting the Four Dimensions Together = 58

  Value Shifts in IBM Between l967 - 69 and 1971 - 73 = 60

  Correlations Between Index Scores = 60

  Country Clusters = 62

  Multilingual Countries : Belgium, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia = 63

 Validation = 65

  The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores = 65

  Replicating the IBM Research = 66

  Comparing With Data From Other Sources = 67

  Economic, Geographic, and Demographic Indicators = 68

  Adding a Fifth Dimension = 69

  Studying Organizational Cultures = 71

  Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed = 73

 Notes = 73

3.Power Distance = 79

 Summary of This Chapter = 79

 Inequality and Power Distance = 79

  On Animal and Human Inequality = 79

  Inequality in Society = 80

  Inequality In Organizations = 82

  The Concept of Power Distance = 83

  Power Distance and Human Inequality = 84

 Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM = 84

  Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7 = 84

  A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries = 85

  Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation = 88

  Gender Differences in Power Distance = 90

  Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 90

 Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources = 91

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 91

  PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society = 92

  Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material = 96

 Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences = 97

  The Power Distance Societal Norm = 97

  Power Distance in the Family = 98

  Power Distance, Schools, and Educational Systems = 100

  Power Distance in Work and Organization = 102

  Power Distance, Worker Participation, and "Industrial Democracy" = 106

  Power Distance and Political Systems = 110

  Power Distance and Religion, Ideology, and Theories of Power = 113

  Power Distance and Aviation Safety = 115

  Predictors of PDI : Latitude, Population Size, and Wealth = 115

  Power Distance and Historical Factors : D'Iribarne's Contribution = 117

  Power Distance and Historical Factors : The Roman Empire and Colonialism = 119

  The Future of Power Distance Differences = 121

 Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 123

  Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country = 123

  Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation = 125

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 126

  Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI = 126

  Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI = 128

  PDI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 132

  Trends in PDI = 135

 Notes = 137

4. Uncertainty Avoidance = 145

 Summary of This Chapter = 145

 The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance = 145

  Time, Future, Uncertainty, and Anxiety = 145

  Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations = 146

  Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance = 148

 Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM = 148

  An Uncertainty Avoidance Index for IBM Countries = 148

  Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance = 150

  Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items = 151

  Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 153

 Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources = 154

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 154

  UAI, Anxiety, and Emotions : Studies by Lynn and Others = 155

  UAI and Subjective Well-Being = 157

  UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society = 158

  Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material = 159

 Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences = 159

  The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm = 159

  Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family = 161

  Uncertainty Avoidance, Schools, and Educational Systems = 162

  UAI and Achievement Motivation : McClelland's Data = 163

  Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation = 165

  Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior = 170

  Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems = 171

  Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation = 174

  Uncertainty Avoidance, Nationalism, and Xenophobia = 175

  Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions = 176

  Uncertainty Avoidance, Theories, and Games = 177

  Predictors of UAI = 179

  Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors = 179

  The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences = 181

 Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 183

  Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country = 183

  Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation = 183

  Country UAI, Average Age of Respondents, and Other IBM Survey Questions = 184

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 186

  Studies of Stress and Well-Being = 188

  McClelland's Study of Motivation = 190

  Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI = 190

  Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI = 197

  UAI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 198

  Trends in UAI = 198

 Notes = 199

5. Individualism and Collectivism = 209

 Summary of This Chapter = 209

 The Individual and the Collectivity = 209

  Individualism in Society = 209

  Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories = 212

 Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM = 214

  An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample = 214

  Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism, and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions = 215

  Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance = 216

  Individualism and Occupation, Gender, and Age = 218

  Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 218

 Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources = 219

  Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP ／ Capita = 219

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 219

  IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students = 220

  IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data = 221

  IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey = 223

  IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values = 224

  Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 225

 Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences = 225

  The Individualism Societal Norm = 225

  Individualism and Collectivism in the Family = 225

  Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior = 231

  Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identiry = 233

  Individualism and Collectivism, Schools, and Educational Systems = 234

  Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation = 235

  Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods = 240

  Individualism and Consumer Behavior = 241

  Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies = 242

  Individualism or Collectivism, Political Systems, and Legislation = 243

  Individualism and Collectivism, Religions, and Ideas = 249

  Predictors of IDV : Wealth and Latitude = 250

  Individualism and Historical Factors = 253

  The Future of Individualism Differences = 254

 Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 255

  Calculating the Individualism Index by Country = 255

  Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation = 257

  Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 258

  Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM = 258

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 260

  Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV = 264

  Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV = 268

  IDV Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 269

  Trends in IDV = 272

 Notes = 273

6. Masculinity and Femininity = 279

 Summary of This Chapter = 279

 Sexes, Genders, and Gender Roles = 279

  Absolute, Statistical, and Social Sex Differences = 279

  Gender Differences in Work Goals = 281

 Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM = 284

  A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample = 284

  Masculinity and Occupation, Gender, and Age = 285

  Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 290

  MAS and Work Centrality in IBM = 291

  Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity, and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions = 292

  Masculinity Versus Individualism = 293

 Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources = 294

  The Need to Control for Wealth Differences = 294

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 295

  MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys = 296

  Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 297

 Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences = 297

  The Masculinity Societal Norm = 297

  Masculinity and Femininity in the Family = 298

  Masculinity, Schools, and Educational Systems = 303

  Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles = 305

  Masculinity and Consumer Behavior = 310

  Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace = 311

  Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Priorities = 317

  Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Mores = 321

  Masculinity and Sexual Behavior = 322

  Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion = 327

  Masculinity and Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Factors = 331

  Masculinity and (Pre)Historical Factors = 331

  The Future of Masculinity ／ Femininity Differences = 333

 Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 335

  Computing MAS for Old and New Cases = 335

  Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 335

  Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 335

  Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS = 337

  MAS Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 339

  Trends in MAS = 340

 Notes = 341

7. Long - Versus Short-Term Orientation = 351

 Summary of This Chapter = 351

 East Versus West = 351

  Cultural Biases in the Researchers' Minds = 351

  The Chinese Value Survey = 352

  Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension = 353

 Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation = 355

  A Long-Term Orientation Index for 23 Countries = 355

  Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation = 355

  Validating LTO Against Other Studies 0f Values = 355

  LTO and Savings Rates : Read's Study = 358

  Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 359

 Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences = 359

  LTO and Family, Social Relationships, and Work = 359

  LTO and Ways of Thinking = 362

  LTO and Economic Growth = 365

  Long - and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds = 368

  African Values : A New Dimension = 369

  The Future of Long - Term Orientation = 370

 Notes = 370

8. Cultures in Organizations = 373

 Summary of This Chapter = 373

 Organizations and National Cultures = 373

  There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems = 373

  The Functioning of Organizations = 375

  Culture and Organization Theories : Nationality Constrains Rationality = 378

  Planning, Control, and Accounting = 381

  Corporate Governance = 384

  Motivation and Compensation = 385

  Leadership and Empowerment = 388

  Management Development and Organization Development = 390

  Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives = 391

 Organizational Cultures = 391

  The "Organizational Culture" Construct = 391

  Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures = 393

  The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project = 395

  Dimensions of Organizational Cultures = 397

  Validating the Practice Dimensions = 400

  Organizational Subcultures = 405

  The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct = 408

  How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Dimensions? = 410

  Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures = 411

  Implications of the Level of Analysis : Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers = 413

  Occupational Cultures = 414

 Notes = 415

9. Intercultural Encounters = 423

 Summary of This Chapter = 423

 Intercultural Communication and Cooperation = 423

  General Principles = 423

  Language and Discourse = 425

  Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure = 425

  Training in Intercultural Competence = 427

 Political Issues = 429

  Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees = 429

  International Politics and International Organizations = 431

  Intercultural Negotiations = 435

  Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation = 437

 Multinational Business = 440

  The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations = 440

  International Acquisitions, Mergers, and Joint Ventures = 445

  International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior = 448

 Schools, Tourism, and a Look Ahead = 451

  Intercultural Encounters in Schools = 451

  Intercultural Encounters in Tourism = 452

  The Influence of New Technology = 453

  Cultural Relativism, Convergence, and Divergence = 453

 Notes = 454

10. Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research = 461

 Summary of This Chapter = 461

 Applications of the Dimensional Model = 461

  The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas = 461

  Fields of Application = 462

  Replications and Their Pitfalls = 463

  Extensions to New Countries = 464

  Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm = 465

 Closing Remarks = 466

 Notes = 466

Appendixes

 Appendix 1 Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This Book = 467

 Appendix 2 Country Scores on A, B, and C Questions(except A5 - A32 and C1 - C8) = 475

 Appendix 3 Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals(questions A5 - l8 and C1 - C8) = 483

 Appendix 4 Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National Survey = 491

 Appendix 5 Summary of Country Index Scores(including additions) = 499

 Appendix 6 Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other Sources = 503

 Appendix 7 Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research Project = 521

 Appendix 8 The Author's Values = 523

References = 525

Name Index = 569

Subject Index = 585

About the Author = 596