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The investigation of the physical properties of matter has progressed so much during the last hundred years that today physics is divided into a large group of special branches, which are often very distant from each other. These branches arise because of the vast extent of the science itself, and are distinguished by the particular area studied, the method of investigation and so on. An independent and important branch that has developed recently is the physics of thin films. This deals with systems which have only one common property, namely, that one of their dimensions is very small, though all other physical properties of such systems may be different, as well as methods of investigating them. Usually, we investigate the physical characteristics of three-dimensional bodies. Their characteristic prop::!rties are often related to a unit volume, i.e. it is assumed that they are volume-independent. This assumption is legitimate as long as the dimensions are 'normal', i.e. more or less within macroscopic limits; but as soon as one dimension becomes so small that there is a considerable increase in a surface-to-volume ratio, that assumption is no longer valid.

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CONTENTS
Preface = 5
1. Introduction = 11
2. Methods of Preparation of Thin Films = 17
 2.1 Chemical and Electrochemical Methods = 17
 2.2 Vacuum Evaporation = 22
  2.2.1 Physical Foundations = 22
  2.2.2 Experimental Techniques = 27
   2.2.2.1 Evaporation Apparatus = 27
   2.2.2.2 Substrates and Their Preparation = 32
   2.2.2.3 The Most Important Materials for Evaporation = 36
   2.2.2.4 Evaporation Sources = 39
   2.2.2.5 Special Evaporation Techniques = 40
   2.2.2.6 Molecular Beam Epitaxy(MBE) = 44
 2.3 Cathode Sputtering and Other Methods Using Ions = 46
  2.3.1 Principle of Diode Sputtering = 46
  2.3.2 Some Special Systems of Cathode Sputtering = 52
  2.3.3 Low-Pressure Methods of Cathode Sputtering = 54
  2.3.4 Ion Plating and Further Methods Using Ion Beams = 56
 2.4 Masking, Microfabrication, and Further Processing of Thin Films = 61
  2.4.1 Common Masking = 62
  2.4.2 Lithographic Methods = 62
  2.4.3 Ion Beam Milling, Etching, and Ion Implantation = 69
  2.4.4 Laser Beam Processing and Other Methods = 71
3. Thin Film Thickness and Deposition Rate Measurement Methods = 75
 3.1 Balance Methods = 76
  3.1.1 Microbalance Method = 76
  3.1.2 Vibrating Quartz Method = 77
 3.2 Electrical Methods = 80
  3.2.1 Electrical Resistivity Measurement = 80
  3.2.2 Measurement of Capacitance = 81
  3.2.3 Measurement of Q-Factor Change = 81
  3.2.4 Ionization Methods = 82
 3.3 Optical Methods = 83
  3.3.1 Methods Based on Measurement of Light Absorption Coefficient = 83
  3.3.2 Interference Methods = 84
  3.3.3 Polarimetric(Elhpsometric) Method = 91
 3.4 Deposition Rate Monitoring Using Transfer of Momentum = 91
 3.5 Special Thickness Monitoring Methods = 92
  3.5.1 Stylus Method = 92
  3.5.2 Radiation-Absorption and Radiation-Emission Methods = 93
  3.5.3 Work-Function Change Method = 94
4. Mechanism of Film Formation = 96
 4.1 Formation Stages of Thin Films = 96
 4.2 Nucleation = 97
  4.2.1 Thermodynamic(Capillary) Theory of Nucleation = 101
  4.2.2 Statistical(Atomistic) Theory of Nucleation = 105
  4.2.3 Influence of Individual Factors on Nucleation Process = 112
  4.2.4 Some Experiments for Verification of Nucleation Theories = 116
 4.3 Growth and Coalescence of Islands = 121
 4.4 Influence of Various Factors on Final Structure of the Film = 128
  4.4.1 Special Properties of Films Deposited by Cathode Sputtering and Other Methods Using Ions = 129
 4.5 Crystallographic Structure of Thin Films = 133
 4.6 Epitaxial Films = 142
5. Thin Film Diagnostics = 148
 5.1 Electron Microscopy of Thin Films = 149
  5.1.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy(TEM) = 149
  5.1.2 Electron-Microscopic Examination of Surface by Replica Method = 158
  5.1.3 Electron Microscopes for Direct Imaging of Film Surface  = 160
   5.1.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscope(SEM) = 160
   5.1.3.2 Reflection Electron Microscope = 163
  5.1.4 Special Electron Microscopic Methods = 164
   5.1.4.1 Emission Microscopes = 164
   5.1.4.2 Field Electron Microscope(FEM) = 165
   5.1.4.3 Field Ion Microscope(FIM) = 169
 5.2 Electron Diffraction = 172
  5.2.1 Diffraction of High-Energy Electrons in Transmission and in Reflection = 173
  5.2.2 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction(LEED) = 178
 5.3 X-Ray Methods = 181
  5.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction = 181
  5.3.2 X-Ray Microscopy(Topography) = 181
  5.3.3 X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis = 182
 5.4 Analytical Methods Using Electron Beams = 182
  5.4.1 General Principles = 182
  5.4.2 Electron Microprobe Analysis(EMA) = 186
  5.4.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy(AES) = 188
  5.4.4 Energy Loss Spectroscopy(ELS) = 190
 5.5 Ion-Beam Methods = 191
  5.5.1 Low-Energy Ion Scattering = 191
  5.5.2 Rutherford Backscattering(RBS) = 192
  5.5.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry(SIMS) = 194
  5.5.4 Ion-Induced X-Ray Emission = 196
  5.5.5 Nuclear Reaction Analysis = 197
 5.6 Methods Using Light Beams = 198
  5.6.1 Photoelectron Spectroscopy = 198
  5.6.2 Laser Induced Spectroscopy = 200
6. Properties of Thin Films = 202
 6.1 Mechanical Properties = 202
  6.1.1 Experimental Methods for Measurement of Mechanical Properties of Thin Films = 203
  6.1.2 Stresses in Thin Films = 207
  6.1.3 Mechanical Constants of Thin Films = 211
  6.1.4 Adhesion of Thin Films = 213
  6.1.5 Rayleigh Surface Waves = 215
 6.2 Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Thin Films = 217
  6.2.1 Conductivity of Continuous Metal Films = 219
  6.2.2 Conductivity of Discontinuous Metal Films = 228
  6.2.3 Electrical Properties of Semiconducting Thin Films = 233
  6.2.4 Changes of Resistivity Due to Sorption of Gases = 238
  6.2.5 Electromigration = 241
  6.2.6 Galvanomagnetic Effects in Thin Films = 243
  6.2.7 Superconductivity in Thin Films = 248
  6.2.8 Conductivity of Thin Dielectric Films = 259
  6.2.9 Dielectric Properties of Thin Films = 273
  6.2.10 Ferromagnetic Properties of Thin Films = 277
 6.3 Optical Properties of Thin Films = 285
  6.3.1 Fundamental Optical Properties = 285
  6.3.2 Light Generation and Optical Waveguides = 288
  6.3.3 Light Modulation = 292
7. Application of Thin Films = 295
 7.1 Applications of Mechanical Properties = 295
 7.2 Applications in Electronics and Microelectronics = 296
  7.2.1 Electrical Contacts, Interconnections, and Resistors = 296
  7.2.2 Capacitors and Inductances = 299
  7.2.3 Active Electronic Elements = 300
  7.2.4 Integrated Circuits = 304
  7.2.5 Some Further Electronic Elements = 307
  7.2.6 Applications of Ferromagnetic and Superconducting Films = 307
  7.2.7 Microacoustic Elements Using Surface Waves = 313
 7.3 Applications in Optics, Optoelectronics, and Integrated Optics = 315
  7.3.1 Mirrors, Filters, and Antireflection Coatings = 315
  7.3.2 Optoelectronic Applications = 317
  7.3.3 Integrated Optics = 321
  7.3.4 Solar Energy Utilization = 324
  7.3.5 Further Applications = 326
References = 327
Index = 336