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This is a major new introductory text for students of all levels - HND, undergraduate and MBA - who are taking their first course in the study of the behaviour of people in organisations. It has been designed to make teaching and learning the subject as easy, relevant and interesting as possible. By integrating all of the different perspectives for examining people in organisations into a coherent and comprehensive body of knowledge, it gives the students a much more realistic view of the subject than many other texts at this level. It will enable students to apply this knowledge to both present and future work situations.

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CONTENTS
Introduction = xviii
A Guide to Working with Case Studies = xxiii
Acknowledgements = xxvi
1 An Introduction to the Study of Organisations = 1
 Introduction = 1
 What is an Organisation? = 2
  Why Study Behaviour in Organisations? = 3
 Different Perspectives on Organisations = 5
  The Machine Metaphor = 5
  The Organism Metaphor = 6
  The (Political) Systems Metaphor = 7
  Organisations as Cultural Systems = 8
  A More Recent Development : The Postmodernist Perspective = 10
 Organisational Behaviour and Analysis = 12
  The Case for Integration = 12
  The Evolution of Organisational Behaviour and Analysis = 13
  The Precursors of Organisational Behaviour = 14
  The Origins of Organisational Analysis = 17
 Contemporary Organisational Behaviour and Analysis = 19
  The Use of Concepts and Theories from Social Science = 19
  A Multidisciplinary Focus = 19
  Theoretical Orientations with Practical Implications = 20
  Open Systems Perspectives = 21
  Contingency Perspective = 21
  Research Orientated and Unprescriptive = 22
 Philosophy and Method in Organisational Research = 23
 Methods of Social Research = 26
  Research Designs = 26
  Data Collection Methods = 28
 An Integrating Model for the Book = 29
2 Contemporary Organisational Challenges = 33
 Introduction = 33
 The Challenge of Globalisation = 34
  A Historic Perspective = 35
  The Pressures for a Globalised Economy = 36
  The Effects of Globalisation = 37
 Other Economic and Competitive Challenges = 38
  Market Pressures = 38
 The Challenge of Ethics and Social Responsibility = 42
 Ethics = 42
  Upbringing and Social Background = 43
  Individual Factors = 44
  Role Requirements = 44
  Organisational Factors = 44
  Wider Social Factors = 44
  Some Current Areas of Ethical Concern = 45
 Social Responsibility = 47
 The Stakeholder Organisation = 47
  Immediate Stakeholders = 49
  The Natural Environment = 49
  The Wider Environment = 50
 Workplace Challenges = 51
  The Changing Composition of the Workforce = 51
  Workforce Diversity = 52
  Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) = 54
  Empowerment = 55
  Employee Relations = 56
  The Learning Organisation = 57
 Contemporary Challenges : An Overview and Preview = 60
3 Personality, Intelligence and Aptitude = 63
 Introduction = 63
 Personality = 65
 The Importance of Personality = 65
 The Origins of Personality = 65
  Genetic Factors = 66
  Social Factors = 67
  Cultural Factors = 67
  Situational Factors = 68
 The Stability of Personality and Behaviour = 68
 Theories of Personality = 70
  Idiographic vs Nomothetic Approaches = 70
 Idiographic Personality Theories = 70
  The Psychodynamic Perspective = 70
  Fromm's Psycho-social Theory of Personality Development = 75
  Interpersonal Theories = 77
  Kelly's Personal Construct Theory = 78
  Humanistic Perspectives : Carl Rogers' Person-Centred Theory = 80
  The Idiographic Approach : Concluding Comments = 80
 The Nomothetic Approach = 81
  Trait Theories = 81
  Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Scheme = 82
  Type Theories = 82
  Eysenck's Type Theory = 84
  Traits vs Types : Cattell and Eysenck Compared = 85
 Personality in the Workplace = 86
  The Issue of Key Characteristics = 86
  The Issue of Assessing Personality = 87
 Intelligence = 90
 The Concept of Intelligence = 90
  The Genetic Component of Intelligence = 92
 Models of Intelligence = 92
 Aptitude and Ability = 96
 Overview and Conclusions = 98
4 Perception and Attitudes = 101
 Introduction = 101
 Perception = 104
 The Human Sensory Process = 104
 The Perceptual Process = 104
  The Basic Perceptual Model = 105
  Stage 1 : Attention and Selection = 105
  Stage 2 : Stimulus Organisation and Recognition = 107
  Stage 3 : Interpretation and Inference = 110
 Social Perception = 112
  Perceiving People = 112
 The Outcomes of Social Perceptions = 116
  The Self-fulfilling Prophecy = 116
  Perception and Performance Appraisal = 118
 Perception and Attributions = 119
  Perception, Attributions and Dealing with Poor Performance = 120
 Attitudes = 123
  Associated Constructs = 123
  Attitudes Defined = 123
  Dimensions of Attitudes = 124
 The Functions of Attitudes = 125
  The Adjustment Function = 126
  The Ego-defensive Function = 126
  The Value-expressive Function = 126
  The Knowledge Function = 126
 Attitude Formation = 128
  Direct Experience = 128
  Exposure to Objects = 129
  Socialisation and Social Learning = 129
  Self-image = 129
  Value-expression = 129
 Attitude Change = 130
  The Source of the Message = 131
  The Nature of the Message = 131
  The Recipients = 131
  The Boomerang Effect = 131
 Attitudes and Behaviour = 132
 Attitude Measurement = 135
  Likert Scales = 135
  Semantic Differential Scales = 136
 Work-related Attitudes = 137
  Job Satisfaction = 137
  The Importance of Job Satisfaction = 138
  Organisational Commitment = 139
 Overview and Conclusions = 142
5 Work Motivation = 145
 Introduction = 145
 Motivation in a Work Context = 147
 Motivation : A Definition and Explanation = 148
  The Basic Motivation Process = 148
 Needs and Expectations of Work = 150
 Barriers to Work Motivation = 152
 Theories of Work Motivation = 153
 The Precursors of Work Motivation Theory = 153
 Content (Needs) Theories of Motivation = 155
  Maslow's Needs Theory = 155
  Aldefer's ERG Theory = 157
  Herzberg's Two-factor Theory = 158
  McClelland's Theory of Learned Needs = 160
 Content Theories : An Integration and Overview = 162
 Process Theories of Motivation = 167
 Expectancy Theory = 167
  Vroom's (Vie) Model = 167
  The Porter and Lawler Expectancy Model = 169
 Equity Theory = 172
 Goal-setting Theory = 174
 Process Theories : Integration and Overview = 176
 Behaviour Modification : An Alternative to Using Motivation Theory = 180
 Overview and Conclusions = 184
6 Decision Making = 187
 Introduction = 187
 Decision Making : A Definition = 189
 Types of Decisions = 190
 Decision Making Models = 192
 Macro Level Models of Decision Making = 193
  Normative Decision Making Models = 193
  Descriptive Decision Making Models = 196
 Micro Level Models of Decision Making = 197
 Other Decision Making Models = 199
  Garbage Can Model = 199
  The Escalation of Commitment to a Failing Course of Action = 200
 Factors Influencing the Decision Making Process = 202
  The Risk Factor = 202
  The Feedback Factor = 203
  The Uncertainty Factor = 204
 New Areas of Decision Making Research = 205
  Communication and Decision Making = 205
  Emotions and Decision Making = 206
  Leadership Style and Decision Making = 206
 Overview and Conclusions = 207
7 Learning = 209
 Introduction = 209
 The Development of the Field of Learning = 211
 Learning : A Definition and Explanation = 212
 The Theoretical Context of Learning = 214
 Conditioning Theories of Learning = 215
  Classical Conditioning = 215
  Operant Conditioning = 216
  Applications of Conditioning Theories = 218
  Behavioural Change and Conditioning = 220
  Schedules of Reinforcement = 222
 Social Learning Theory = 223
 Cognitive Theories = 224
  Memory = 224
  Critical Analysis of Cognitive Approach to Learning = 227
 Experiential Learning = 228
  Cognitive Styles and Learning Styles = 228
  Implications of Learning Styles = 231
 Areas for Future Focus = 232
 Overview and Conclusions = 233
8 Job Design = 235
 Introduction = 235
 Job Design : The Origins = 237
 Job Design : The Major Approaches = 240
 The Core Elements of Job Design = 241
  Job Simplification = 241
  Job Rotation = 242
  Job Enlargement = 243
  Job Enrichment = 243
  The Hackman and Oldham Job Characteristics Approach = 244
 Peripheral Aspects of Job Design = 247
  Ergonomics = 248
  Work Study = 252
  Quality of Working Life (QWL) = 253
  Management Style and Organisational Culture = 254
  Extended Quality Circles = 255
  Empowerment, Involvement and Semi-autonomous Work Groups = 256
  Flexible Work Patterns = 257
 Technology and Job Design = 259
  The Impact of Computers = 259
  The Impact of E-mail = 260
  Technology and the Office = 261
 Overview and Conclusions = 262
9 Stress = 265
 Introduction = 265
 Measuring the Cost of Stress = 267
 What is Stress? = 268
 Sources of Stress = 268
  Environmental Stressors = 270
  Organisational Stressors = 271
  Individual Stressors = 275
 Levels of Stress = 275
 Personal Resources to Deal with Stress = 277
  Personality Characteristics = 278
  Cognitive Constructs = 278
 The Outcomes of Stress = 279
 Coping with Stress = 281
  Organisational and Individual Coping Mechanisms = 282
 Preventative versus Curative Approaches to Stress = 285
 Stress in Different Occupations = 286
  Headteachers and Stress = 286
  Civil Servants and Stress = 287
  Leisure Industry and Stress = 288
 Overview and Conclusions = 288
10 Groups = 291
 Introduction = 291
 A Definition of Groups = 293
 Types of Groups = 293
  Formal Groups = 293
  Informal Groups = 295
 The Meaning and Functions of Groups = 295
 Group Influences on Individual Behaviour = 297
 Group Formation and Development = 301
  The Stages of Development Approach = 301
  The Outcomes of Development Approach = 303
 Group Characteristics = 308
  Group Structure = 308
  Group Norms = 314
  Group Cohesiveness = 315
  Group Decision Making = 318
 Group Effectiveness = 322
 Relations Between Groups : Intergroup Conflict = 325
 Overview and Conclusions = 327
11 Leadership = 331
 Introduction = 331
 The Nature of Leadership = 333
  Leadership and Management = 333
  The Significance of Leadership to Organisations = 335
 Leadership Theories and Models = 336
 Trait Theory = 338
 Style Theories = 339
  The Ohio State Leadership Studies = 340
  The Michigan Leadership Studies = 341
 Contingency Theories of Leadership = 345
  Fielder's Contingency Theory = 346
  The Path-goal Theory of Leadership = 350
  The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model = 353
  The Hersey and Blanchard Contingency Approach = 355
  Substitutes for Leadership = 357
  An Overview of Contingency Theories = 359
 The Functional Approach to Leadership = 361
  Action-centred Leadership = 361
  The Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL) Model = 363
 Recent Perspectives on Leadership = 364
  Transactional vs Transformational (Charismatic) Leadership = 364
  The Attributional Approach = 367
 Leadership and National Cultures = 368
 Overview and Conclusions = 371
12 Power, Politics and Conflict = 375
 Introduction = 375
 Power = 377
 Introduction and Definition = 377
 The Origins (Sources or Bases) of Power = 378
  The Interpersonal Bases of Power = 378
  Organisational Origins = 378
  Personal Origins = 380
  Contextual Bases of Power = 381
 The Basis of Power = 384
 The Use of power = 385
  Misconceptions of Power Use = 385
  Power Tactics = 386
 A Overview of Power and its Use = 388
 Organisational Politics = 391
 Introduction and Definition = 391
 Factors giving rise to Political Behaviour = 392
  Individual Factors = 392
  Organisational Factors = 392
 The Pervasiveness of Organisational Politics = 394
  Political Behaviour : Positive or Negative Functions? = 395
  The Ethics of Political Behaviour = 395
 Political Behaviour = 397
  Political Tactics = 397
  Game Playing = 398
  Political Behaviour : An Overview = 400
 Organisational Conflict = 401
 Introduction and Definition = 401
 Conflict : Traditional and Contemporary Views = 401
  Alternative Philosophies of Conflict = 401
 The Nature of Organisational Conflict = 403
  The Causal Factors in Conflict = 404
  Organisational Structure and Design Factors = 404
  Personal Factors = 405
  Cultural Factors = 406
  Communication Factors = 406
 Conflict Episodes = 407
  Pre-Episode Factors = 407
  The Conflict Process = 408
  Outcomes = 408
 Conflict Management = 409
  Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict = 409
  Conflict Resolution = 410
  Conflict Stimulation = 412
 Overview and Conclusions = 414
13 Organisational Goals = 417
 Introduction = 417
 Goals and Associated Terms : A Taxonomy = 419
 The Nature of Goals = 422
  Official Goals = 422
  Operative Goals = 422
  Multiple Goals : The Issue of Goal Conflicts = 424
  Goal Displacement and Goal Succession = 424
  Hard and Soft Goals = 425
  Personal Goals and Organisational Goals = 425
 Goals and the Control Model = 426
 Goal Setting = 428
  The Purposes of Goal Setting = 428
  Forecasting and Planning = 431
 Policies, Strategies and Goals = 432
  Policies = 432
  Strategy = 433
 Social Responsibility and Goals = 434
 Goals and the Issue of Change = 434
 Overview and Conclusions = 435
14 Organisational Effectiveness = 437
 Introduction = 437
 Definitions of Effectiveness = 438
  Roles = 439
 Approaches to Effectiveness = 440
  The Systems (or System Resource) Approach = 440
  The Internal Process Approach : A Hybrid Model = 441
  The Goal (or Output Orientated) Approach = 442
  The Stakeholder (or Multi-constituency) Approach = 443
  The Competing Values Approach = 444
 An Integrative (Multi-variate) Model of Effectiveness = 447
  Effectiveness and the Environment = 448
  Internal Effectiveness = 449
  Leadership = 453
  Effectiveness and the Individual = 455
 Overview and Conclusions = 459
15 Organisational Structure and Design = 461
 Introduction = 461
 Organisational Structure = 463
 The Meaning of Structure = 463
 The Importance of Structure = 464
  The Consequences of Structural Deficiencies = 466
 Dimensions of Structure = 467
  Dimension 1 : Configuration or Grouping = 467
  Dimension 2 : Centralisation = 473
  Dimension 3 : Specialisation = 474
  Dimension 4 : Formalisation = 475
  Dimension 5 : Standardisation = 475
  The Relationship Between the Dimensions of Structure = 476
 Organisational Design = 479
 The Classical Approach = 479
  Max Weber and Bureaucracy = 479
  Classical Organisational Theory = 481
 The Contingency Approach = 481
  Organisational Size = 482
  Technology = 483
  Environment = 488
  Culture as a Contingency Variable = 493
  Contingency Theory : An Overview = 497
 Contemporary Trends in Organisational Design = 500
  Customer Relations and Adaptability = 500
  Advanced Technology = 501
  Human Resources = 501
  Downsizing, Rightsizing and Delayering = 502
  Business Process Re-engineering = 502
 Overview and Conclusions = 503
16 Organisational Control = 505
 Introduction = 505
 The Principles of Control = 507
  Why is Control Needed? = 507
 Control as a Process = 508
  Effectiveness of Control = 508
  The Trust-control Relationship = 510
 The Control Model = 512
  Closed-loop Control = 513
  Open-loop Control = 514
  The Utility of the Control Model = 514
  Criticisms of the Control Model = 515
 Control in Practice = 517
  The Individual and Control = 517
  Groups and Control = 518
  Control : The Traditional Approach = 518
 Current Trends in Control = 520
  Organisational Level Initiatives = 521
  Group Level Initiatives = 523
  Individual Level Initiatives = 524
 Overview and Conclusions = 526
17 Organisational Cultures and Climates = 529
 Introduction = 529
 Organisational Culture = 532
 Explanation and Definition of Organisational Culture = 532
 The Nature of Organisational Culture = 533
  Basic Assumptions = 534
  Values and Beliefs = 535
  Artefacts and Creations = 535
 Characteristics of Cultures = 536
  Pervasiveness or Homogeneity = 536
  Strength of Culture = 537
  Cultural Evolution and Replication = 538
  The Effects of Culture on Organisational Performance = 542
 Perspectives on Culture = 547
  The Ouchi Approach : Theory Z = 547
  The Peters and Waterman Approach = 550
  The Deal and Kennedy Approach = 553
 Culture Change and Culture Management = 554
  The Methodology = 555
  Techniques = 556
 An International Perspective = 559
  Hofstede : The Hermes Study = 560
 Organisational Climate = 563
 The Nature and Origins of Climate = 564
  The Relations of Climate to Culture = 564
  Individual or Group Level Construct? = 565
  Outcomes or Phenomena? = 565
 Climate : A Model of Antecedents and Outcomes = 566
  Organisational Climate = 568
  Outcomes = 568
  The Environmental Context = 569
  The Organisational Context = 569
  The Immediate Context = 570
  The Individual = 571
 Overview and Conclusions = 572
  Culture and Climate as Theoretical Constructs = 572
  Culture and Climate as Organisational Phenomena = 573
  The Utility of Culture and Climate Concepts to Managers = 573
18 Organisational Communication = 577
 Introduction = 577
 Towards a Definition of Communication = 579
 Multiple-perspective Model of Communication = 580
  Environment = 581
  Communicators = 581
  Encoding = 582
  Message = 583
  Genre = 584
  Channel = 584
  Receivers = 584
  Decoding = 585
  Feedback = 585
  Shadow Communicator = 586
 Organisational Factors = 587
 Forms of Communication = 589
 Written Communication : A Further Consideration = 593
 Principles of Organisational Communication = 597
  The Seven Cs if Organisational Communication = 597
 Overview and Conclusions = 600
19 Organisational Change = 603
 Introduction = 603
 Understanding Organisational Change = 605
 Triggers for Organisational Change = 605
  Financial Losses and Profit Reductions = 605
  Increased Competition = 606
  New Technology = 607
  Work-force Diversity = 608
 Planned Organisational Change = 609
 Organisational Transformation = 610
 Organisational Change Models = 611
  Force Field Analysis = 611
  The Systems Model of Change = 612
  Action Research = 613
 Recent Change Models = 614
  The Lewis Model = 614
  The Integrative Approach = 615
 A Critical Analysis of Change Models = 616
 Blocks to Change = 617
  Perceptual Blocks = 617
  Emotional Blocks = 617
  Cultural Blocks = 617
  Environmental Blocks = 618
  Cognitive Blocks = 618
 Resistance to Change = 618
  Managing Resistance to Change = 619
 Organisational Development = 622
  Levels of Intervention = 623
  Change Agents = 623
 How Change can be Continuous : The Learning Organisation = 625
 Overview and Conclusions = 625
20 Globalisation and the Organisation Across Cultures = 627
 Introduction = 627
 The Growth of International Business = 629
  Information Technology = 629
  Research Inputs = 630
  Product Markets = 630
  Economic and Political Changes = 630
 The Emergence of Global Organisations = 631
 Structure in Globalised Organisations = 633
  Formalisation = 634
  Differentiation = 634
  Centralisation = 634
 Culture and Global Organisation = 635
  The Hofstede Study of National Cultures = 635
  Lewis's Model of Cultural Categorisation = 637
 Management Orientations in Globalised Organisations = 639
 Communication, Coordination and Human Resources in Globalised Organisations = 641
  Communication and Coordination = 641
  Human Resource Practices = 642
 Overview and Conclusions = 643
21 Integrating Micro and Macro Level Perspectives = 645
 Introduction = 645
 The Case for Integration : A Reprise = 647
 Integration at the Different Levels = 649
  Integration at the Micro (Organisational Behaviour) Level = 649
 Micro and Macro Level Links = 657
  The Effects of Macro on Micro Level = 657
  The Effects of Micro on Macro Level = 663
 Overview and Conclusions = 669
22 Integrating Individuals and Groups with the Organisation : Employee Relations and Human Resource Management = 679
 Introduction = 679
 Employee Relations and Human Resource Management = 682
  Management Philosophy = 682
  Current Perspectives and Approaches = 683
 The Organisational Environment = 687
  The Economic and Market Context = 687
  The Technological Context = 687
  The Context of Wider Social Values and Ideologies = 687
  The Political and Legal Context = 688
 The Parties to the Relationship = 691
  Employees and Managers = 691
  Policy and Strategy = 694
  Employees and their Associations = 697
  The Employer-Employee Relationship = 699
 The Processes of Integration = 705
 Inter-group and Organisational Level Processes = 705
  Human Resource Planning = 705
  Collective Bargaining and Negotiation = 707
 Group Level Processes = 711
  Communication = 711
  Participation and Involvement = 713
 Individual Level Processes = 718
  Recruitment and Selection = 718
  Performance Appraisal = 722
  Training and Development = 725
  Reward Systems = 727
  Discipline and Grievance = 730
 Overview and Conclusions = 735
  Inter-group and Organisational Level = 735
  Group Level = 735
  Individual Level = 735
  The Relationship between Levels = 736
Glossary = 740
References = 751
Author Index = 778
Subject Index = 788